U1- Biological bases of behavior- P2

psychoactive drugs

substances that can alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior by changing the brain's neurochemistry.

Example:

• Caffeine is a stimulant that increases alertness and energy by boosting dopamine levels.

• LSD is a hallucinogen that alters perception, causing visual or auditory distortions.

Substance abuse disorder

mental health conditions that involve an excessive use of a substance or substances, leading to significant impairment or distress.

Example:

• A person who regularly uses alcohol despite knowing it leads to health problems, job loss, or strained relationships

depressants

drugs that reduce arousal and stimulation in certain areas of the brain by slowing down bodily functions and neural activity.

Example:

1. Alcohol – Reduces inhibition and slows down brain function, leading to relaxation but can impair motor skills and judgment.

tolerance

the reduced response to a drug after repeated use, leading an individual to consume larger doses in order to achieve the same effect.

Example:

• Alcohol ___: Someone who drinks frequently may need to consume more alcohol to feel drunk or relaxed because their body has become accustomed to the effects.

addiction

chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking, continued use despite harmful consequences, and long-lasting changes in the brain

Example:

• Drug ___: A person who cannot stop using cocaine, even though it is damaging their relationships, job, and health, is experiencing___

withdrawal

the physical and mental symptoms that occur after stopping or reducing intake of a substance such as drugs or alcohol, which the body has become dependent on.

Example:

• Alcohol ____: A person who has been drinking heavily for a long time may experience shaking, sweating, anxiety, and even seizures if they suddenly stop drinking.

barbiturates

drugs that act as central nervous system depressants and can produce effects from mild sedation to total anesthesia.

example":

• Phenobarbital is used to treat seizures (as an anticonvulsant) and in some cases to manage anxiety or insomnia.

opioids

class of drugs that act on the body's opioid receptors, reducing pain and producing feelings of euphoria. They can be natural (e.g., morphine) or synthetic (e.g., oxycodone).

stimulants

Substances that increase activity in the body and brain, enhancing alertness and energy levels.

• Caffeine

hallucinogens

drug that causes distortion of a person's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. Hallucinogens can cause a person to experience intense emotions and sensations. Hallucinogenic drugs can also cause a person to see or hear things that do not exist.

• LSD

near-death experiences

personal experiences associated with impending death encompassing multiple possible sensations including detachment from the body; feelings of levitation; extreme fear; total serenity, security, or warmth; the experience of absolute dissolution; and the presence of a light.

• Example:

  • A person in a car accident may report feeling as though they were hovering over their body, watching emergency responders, and then experiencing a peaceful feeling or seeing a bright light. After being revived, they may recall the event as a transformative or life-changing experience.

biological psychologists

People that study the connection between the brain, nervous system, and behavior. They explore how biological processes (like brain activity, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetics) influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Biological psychology is rooted in the idea that psychological phenomena can be understood through a biological framework.

• Example:

  • Studying Depression: A biological psychologist might explore how low levels of serotonin in the brain contribute to depression and how medications like SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) can help by increasing serotonin availability.

biopsychosocial approach

comprehensive perspective that examines mental health and behavior as the result of a complex interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors. This approach recognizes that no single factor can fully explain human behavior or mental health conditions, and that understanding an individual’s experience requires considering all three dimensions.

• Example:

  • Consider depression:

    • Biological: The person may have a genetic predisposition to depression or a chemical imbalance in the brain (e.g., low serotonin).

    • Psychological: The person might have negative thinking patterns, such as catastrophizing or pessimism, that exacerbate feelings of hopelessness.

    • Social: The individual may be experiencing social isolation, a lack of family support, or stressful life events, such as the loss of a job or a relationship breakdown.

levels of analysis

framework used in psychology to understand and explain behavior by examining it from different perspectives. These levels range from the most biological aspects of behavior (such as brain structures or neurotransmitters) to broader social and cultural influences. The different levels allow psychologists to view behavior through various lenses and help to create a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior.

• Example in Action: Depression

  • Biological Level: Depression may be influenced by genetic predispositions, brain chemistry (low serotonin or dopamine), or structural differences in the brain (e.g., reduced hippocampus volume).

  • Psychological Level: A person might have negative thought patterns, such as rumination or cognitive distortions (e.g., all-or-nothing thinking), contributing to their feelings of hopelessness.

  • Social/Cultural Level: Cultural stigmas around mental health or lack of social support could prevent the person from seeking help, while societal pressure may contribute to feelings of inadequacy or stress.

neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. It is the process by which the brain adapts to new experiences, learning, or injury. This means that the brain is not a static organ but one that can change its structure and function in response to various factors.

Example:

• Rehabilitation After Stroke: If a stroke damages a person’s ability to move one side of their body, therapy and rehabilitation can encourage the brain to rewire itself. Other parts of the brain may take over control of motor functions, and with repeated practice, the person can regain movement, demonstrating the brain's ____

consciousness

the state of being aware of and able to think about one’s own existence, thoughts, surroundings, and experiences. It includes both the awareness of external stimuli and the internal thoughts and feelings that arise from them. ____ is often considered one of the most mysterious aspects of the mind, as it involves subjective experiences that are difficult to measure or observe directly.

Example of Consciousness:

• Normal Wakefulness: A person sitting at a desk is conscious of their environment, thinking about a task they need to complete, and processing sensory information like the sound of traffic outside or the feel of a pen in their hand.

cognitive neuroscience

interdisciplinary field that studies the connection between cognitive processes (like thinking, memory, perception, and decision-making) and the biological processes in the brain. It seeks to understand how the brain enables mental functions, how mental processes affect brain activity, and how damage to brain areas can impact cognition.

• Example:

  • Visual Perception: Cognitive neuroscientists may study how the brain processes visual stimuli, from detecting light through the retina to recognizing objects in the visual cortex.

dual processing

the theory that the brain processes information in two distinct ways: through two different systems that operate simultaneously and independently (automatic and controlled).

• Driving:

  • System 1: When you drive on familiar routes, your brain automatically follows patterns, like stopping at a red light or turning left at a usual intersection.

  • System 2: When you're driving in an unfamiliar area, you consciously map out directions, pay attention to road signs, and make deliberate decisions.

blindsight

rare and fascinating phenomenon where individuals who are clinically blind (due to damage to the primary visual cortex, or V1) can still respond to visual stimuli without being consciously aware of them.

• example of Blindsight:

  • A person with blindsight might be asked, "Can you see the object in front of you?" They would respond, "No, I cannot see it." However, if asked to point to the object or describe its movement, they may do so accurately, even though they cannot consciously identify the object or its features.

parallel processing

the brain’s ability to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously. Instead of handling one task at a time in a sequential manner

• example: Driving

sequential processing

the brain’s ability to process information one step at a time, in a linear, step-by-step manner.

• Example:

  When solving a complex math problem, you might process each step of the calculation one after another, rather than handling multiple steps simultaneously.

sleep

natural, recurring state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by reduced consciousness, lower physical activity, and reduced responsiveness to external stimuli. It is essential for physical health, cognitive function, and emotional well-being.

• Example:

  • Deep Sleep (NREM Stage 3): When you’re in deep sleep, your body is repairing tissues and building muscle while your brain is consolidating memories.

circadian rhythm

the body's internal 24-hour cycle that regulates various physiological processes, including sleep-wake patterns, body temperature, and hormone release. It is driven by an internal "biological clock" and is influenced by external cues, like light and darkness.

• Example:

  • Morning light exposure: When you wake up and get sunlight, it helps signal your body to stay awake and alert, adjusting the circadian rhythm for the day ahead.

REM sleep

stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreams. It typically occurs in cycles throughout the night and is essential for cognitive functions like memory consolidation and emotional regulation.

Example:

• If you have an intense dream about a situation you encountered during the day, it is likely occurring during REM sleep as your brain works to process those experiences.

Alpha waves

type of brainwave that occur when a person is in a relaxed, yet awake state, typically with their eyes closed. They are associated with calmness, relaxation, and a state of mental restfulness.

Example:

• When you close your eyes to rest and take deep breaths, your brain may begin producing alpha waves as you relax.

NREM sleep

stage of sleep that occurs in three distinct phases and is crucial for physical restoration, deep rest, and overall health.

• Stage 1: The lightest sleep stage, where you transition from wakefulness to sleep. Muscle activity slows, and you may experience hypnic jerks (sudden muscle twitches).

• Stage 2: A deeper sleep where body temperature drops, heart rate slows, and brain waves become more synchronized with sleep spindles (short bursts of brain activity).

• Stage 3: Deep sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. It is the most restorative phase, where the body repairs tissues, strengthens the immune system, and builds muscle.

Hallucinations

perceptions of something that isn't actually present in the external world. They can involve any of the senses—sight, sound, touch, taste, or smell—and can occur in various contexts, such as during sleep deprivation, drug use, mental health conditions, or even extreme stress.

• Example:

  • Auditory Hallucination: Hearing a voice calling your name when no one is around, which could occur due to stress or sleep deprivation.

hypnagogic sensations

vivid, often strange experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep. These sensations happen in the hypnagogic state, which is the phase just before falling asleep.

Example:

• Hypnic Jerk: While lying in bed, you may suddenly feel like you’re falling, causing a quick, jerking motion in your limbs. This happens as the body relaxes and prepares for sleep.

delta waves

the slowest and highest-amplitude brainwaves, typically occurring during deep sleep (Stage 3 of NREM sleep). They are associated with the most restorative and restful stages of sleep.

• Example:

  • During deep sleep, your brain emits delta waves, helping you recover physically and allowing your body to repair muscle tissue, regulate hormones, and strengthen the immune system.

suprachiasmatic nucleus

small cluster of nerve cells located in the hypothalamus of the brain, just above the point where the optic nerves cross. It plays a crucial role in regulating the body’s circadian rhythm (24-hour internal clock) that controls sleep-wake cycles and other biological processes.

• Example:

  • In the morning, light entering your eyes signals the SCN to start the process of waking up by increasing alertness and suppressing melatonin. At night, the absence of light helps signal the SCN to release melatonin, preparing your body for sleep.

insomnia

sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early and not being able to fall back asleep. It can lead to poor sleep quality and a lack of restorative sleep, affecting overall health and well-being.

• Example:

  • Someone may experience insomnia after a stressful week at work, causing them to lie awake at night, unable to sleep despite feeling tired, leading to exhaustion the following day.

narcolepsy

chronic neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to regulate sleep-wake cycles. It is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep, even during activities.

• Example:

  • A person with____ might be in a meeting or driving and suddenly fall asleep for several minutes without warning, despite feeling exhausted and trying to stay awake.

sleep apnea

sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep. These interruptions can last for a few seconds to minutes and can occur many times during the night, leading to poor sleep quality and various health problems.

• Example:

  • A person with sleep apnea might wake up multiple times during the night, gasping for air, and feel exhausted during the day despite having a full night's sleep.

REM sleep behavior disorder

sleep disorder where a person acts out their dreams during REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, which is typically a stage of sleep where the body is paralyzed to prevent physical movement during dreaming. People with RBD do not experience this paralysis, and instead, they may physically act out their dreams, sometimes resulting in violent movements.

• Example:

  • A person with RBD might suddenly sit up in bed, shouting or flailing their arms as they dream of being in a fight, potentially injuring themselves or their partner in the process.

Dream

sequence of thoughts, images, emotions, and sensations that occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep, particularly during REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. Dreams can be vivid and imaginative or unclear and fragmented, and they often reflect aspects of a person's emotions, thoughts, memories, and unconscious desires.

• Example:

  • A person might dream they are flying through the sky, feeling free and exhilarated. This could be a positive, imaginative dream that reflects a sense of freedom in waking life.

REM rebound

phenomenon where, after a period of sleep deprivation or interruption, a person experiences an increase in the intensity and duration of REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep during subsequent sleep.

• Example:

  • After staying up all night for studying (sleep deprivation), you may experience __ the following night, where your sleep is filled with longer, more vivid dreams as your body tries to make up for lost REM sleep.