Patterns of offending

Patterns of social class and offending

• Official statistics show that working class people, particularly those from the lower working class, are more highly represented among offenders than those from other social classes

• Omolade Of 2100 inmates:

  • 43% no educational qualifications

  • 6% with degree or equivalent

  • 36% unemployed on sentencing

  • 60% claiming benefits

Lower classes are more criminal - left realism: marginalisation

• In the most disadvantaged communities, there are likely to be the highest levels of marginality and social exclusion. In such communities, agencies of socialisation and social control are likely to be less effective in providing the bonds that integrate people into wider mainstream society.

• Control theory points to the weakening of these factors as making people more prone to offending, When pondering whether or not to choose crime, as rational choice theory suggests, potential offenders trom poor areas may decide that the benefits of crime, giving them access to money and consumer goods, outweigh the costs and risks of being caught.

• AO2: Willis ‘learning to labour’

Lower classes are more criminal - functionalism: status frustration

• Cohen: working class have an inability to achieve legitimately so use crime to achieve illegitimately

• AO2: pablo tscobar - couldn’t achieve illegitimately so he turned to crime

Lower classes are more criminal - labelling theory

• Becker: more likely that the working classes are labelled as criminal and therefore attract more attention from the police

• Labelling, stereotyping and prejudice - the poorest sections of the working class and the areas in which they live, fit more closely the stereotypes held in police culture of the ‘typical criminal’ and criminal neighbourhoods. There is therefore a greater police presence in poorer working class areas than in middle class areas.

• As result there is a greater likelihood of offenders being regarded as acting suspiciously, being stopped and searched, or being arrested by the police when involved in offending. Crime rates will therefore be higher in working-class areas simply because there are more police.

• The activities of the working class, and particularly working-class youth, are more likely to be labelled by the police as criminal than the same behaviour in the middle class.

• The prejudices of middle-class judges and magistrates may mean that, when working-class people appear in court, they are more likely to be seen as fitting the stereotype of typical criminals, and they will therefore face a higher risk of being found guilty.

Lower classes are more criminal - functionalism: strain theory

Merton - those living in deprived communities have fewer opportunities to achieve the goals they aspire to. These circumstances push people to ‘innovate’ and find alternative means reach success goals, such as crime.

Lower classes are more criminal - Marxism

Society focuses on working class crime rather than middle class crime. The laws created and enforced to punish the working class. Also, that criminogenic capitalism disproportionately impacts the working class and they are the most deprived.

White collar crime

• Generally non-violent in nature and includes public corruption, health care fraud, mortgage fraud, securities fraud and money laundering etc

• Is for the benefit of the individual

Corporate crime

• Organisational crime, type of white collar crime committed by individuals (or organisations) within their legitimate occupation

• Is for the benefit of their employing organisation

Ethnicity and crime key trends

• Black people were over 3 times as likely to be arrested than white people - there were 32 arrests for every 1000 black people, and 17 arrests for every 1000 white people

• Black men were over 3 times as likely to be arrested than white men - 60 arrests for every 1000 black men and 17 arrests for every 1000 white men

Measures of crime findings from ethnicity and offending

• OCS: black people are seven times more likely than white to be stopped and searched and five times more likely to be in prison

• Victim surveys: when asking respondents to identify the ethnicity of the person who committed the crime against them, in the case of ‘mugging’ black people are significantly more likely to be identified as offenders

• Self report studies: when asked to disclose the crimes they have committed. Graham and Bowling found that black and white people had almost identical rates of offending, while Asians had much lower rates

Ethnicity and offending - policing

Phillips and Bowling note but there have been many allegations of oppressive policing of minority communities including:

• Mass stop and search operations, paramilitary tactics, excessive surveillance, armed raids, police violence and deaths in custody, and a failure to respond affectively to racist violence.

• The noted that minorities are more likely to think they are 'over policed and under protected'.

Ethnicity and offending - stop and search

• Black people are seven times more likely to be stopped and searched than white

• Asians are over three times more likely to be stopped and searched under the Terrorism Act 2000

• Only a small proportion of stops result in arrest

Ethnicity and offending - sentencing and prison

• Hood found that Even when the seriousness of the offence and previous convictions are considered, black men were 5% more likely to be jailed.

• Black people are five times more likely to be in prison than white people. Black and Asian ethnic groups are more likely to be serving longer sentences.

• When awaiting trial, ethnic minorities are less likely to be granted bail.

Ethnic minorities are more criminal - left realists: marginalisation

• Lea and young: young unemployed black people are marginalised in that they are unorganised and have few pressure groups to lobby on their behalf, so their frustrations are more likely to be expressed in illegal activities

• Education causes marginalisation and EMG to feel frustrated by a lack of voice

• App: London riots 2011 frustration

Ethnic minorities are more criminal - left realists: relative deprivation

• Minorities suffer relative deprivation not only in areas shared with sections of the white working class (high unemployment and poor environment) but also racial discrimination and racially motivated attacks

• Lea and Young explain how feelings of deprivation compared to others can lead to frustration and, ultimately, crime. Ethnic minority groups, particularly Black and Bangladeshi face economic disadvantage, limited job opportunities, and poor housing conditions - leading some individuals to engage in criminal activities

• App: data shows that Black households are significantly more likely to live in poverty compared to White households, correlating with higher rates of street crime and gang involvement. Specifically, 27% of individuals in Black households experience persistent low income, compared to 12% in White households.

• An: Relative deprivation explains why some crimes, such as theft and drug-related offences, are more common in economically disadvantaged areas with high ethnic diversity.

• Eval: However, this theory is limited as it does not explain why some deprived communities have low crime rates, nor does it fully account for non-utilitarian crimes such as violence or hate crimes.

Ethnic minorities are more criminal - left realists: subculture

• Mirza: institutional racism pushed EMG into subcultures. Turned to deviant/ criminal activities to get status

• Eval: fuller - black girls worked together and worked hard despite the teacher and institutional racism

• Gunter: these blocked opportunities have led to the development of a ‘road culture’ amongst young black males. Seeking status from criminal activities and the development of ‘bad boy’ personas

• Cloward and Ohlin: status frustration - can’t be accepted in mainstream hierarchy so form a criminal one to feel a sense of belonging

Ethnic minorities are more criminal - socialisation and role models

• Sewell: lack of male role models in black families → lack of discipline → criminal behaviour

• Arnot: find a media role models for EMG’s ultra tough ghetto superstar, eg 50 cent

Ethnic minorities are more criminal - interactionist: labelling

• Role of media in creating folk devils out of both black and Asian males.

• Negative stereotyping of black and Asian males being associated with certain crimes e.g. drug dealing and carrying knives.

• Bowling and Phillips: Higher levels of robbery among black people could be the product of labelling that arises from the use of regular stop and search procedures, which in turn leads to the self-fulfilling prophecy.

• Ethnic minority groups are less likely to be able to negotiate the justice system than white middle class - use the work of Cicourel & negotiations of justice.

• Institutional racism and labelling in education

• App: Hall study Policing the Crisis showed how the media and police constructed the "Black mugger" as a folk devil during times of economic instability, creating moral panics and justifying harsher policing of Black communities.

• An: Labelling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals internalise the negative label, feeling excluded from mainstream society and engaging in deviant behaviour that aligns with societal expectations.

• Eval: However, the labelling theory can be critiqued for being overly deterministic, as not all individuals labelled as deviant go on to offend, but rather that are more heavily policed which leds to an increase in crime.

Ethnic minorities are more criminal - functionalists: strain theory

40% of ethnic minorities are classified as below the poverty line. Also, lack of resources and opportunities can lead to strain. Lack of legitimate opportunities leads to retreatism or innovation in order to achieve societies goals.

Ethnic minorities are perceived to be more criminal - institutional racism

• Racism that is not necessarily intentional but that the day-to-day activities of the organisation are based upon racist ideas and practices i.e. Racism Is ingrained in the system

• Hall et al- Policing the Crisis- examined the moral panic over "mugging" in the early 1970s, using Marxist insights. Selective and stereotypical reporting represented young black men as potential muggers and given the role of folk devils. In fact, mugging (not an official category of crime in any case) was not increasing dramatically. Hall explained the moral panic in terms of a crisis of British capitalism: the state deflected attention on to a small group who could be scapegoated and on whom the state could be portrayed as cracking down firmly, using new repressive policing which would be useful in tackling future unrest. Young blacks were suitable for this role because of their visibility and powerlessness in the sense of lacking organizations or representatives to speak on their behalf.

• App: macpherson report published after the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence - found institutional racism in the police force. Identified incompetence, bias and lack of training.

  • There has now been a change in how the police approach race equality

• An: This form of racism affects the relationship between ethnicity and offending by creating structural barriers to justice for ethnic minorities. Disproportionate sentencing, harsher treatment during court proceedings, and over-representation in prison populations reflect institutional bias.

• Eval: While institutional racism highlights systemic issues, some critics argue that it does not fully explain variations in crime rates between different ethnic groups. For instance, while Black groups are overrepresented in street crime, White offenders dominate in financial crimes, suggesting that institutional factors alone cannot account for all patterns of offending.

Ethnic minorities are perceived to be more criminal - canteen culture

• Reiner: canteen culture amongst the police, including suspicion, macho values and racism, which encourages racist stereotypes and a mistrust of those from non-white backgrounds

• Thrives on a system of informal norms, secrecy and strong internal solidarity

• AO2: discovered disgraceful misogyny, discrimination, bullying and sexual harassment within the Met Police

• An: This shared culture can create an 'us vs. them' mentality, where officers view ethnic minority communities as inherently suspicious or difficult to police. Such attitudes were evident in the handling of the Stephen Lawrence case, where officers demonstrated both overt and covert racial bias.

• Eval: canteen culture is complex and not all officers participate in discriminatory behaviour. Some argue that focusing on canteen culture oversimplifies the issue by blaming individual attitudes rather than structural problems within the criminal justice system.

Ethnic minorities are perceived to be more criminal - selective law enforcement

• Gilroy: Black criminality is a myth according to Gilroy. Self-report studies show similar levels of criminality in black and white communities. But law enforcement was focused on black communities. This led to political resistance & action against this perceived oppression and used tactics that had been passed down from colonial struggles. This action by the public resulted in a police crackdown to reassert control.

• Tax evasion and corporate fraud receive less attention than street crime due to not having a direct victim

• Black people and Asians are more likely to be stopped and searched but only a small proportion of stops result in arrests

Ethnic minorities are perceived to be more criminal - typifications

• Cicourel - refer to the stereotypes and assumptions held by law enforcement about the 'typical offender'. These assumptions often target young Black and Asian males, leading to disproportionate policing and stop-and-search practices.

• App: Data from the UK Home Office consistently shows that Black individuals are up to nine times more likely to be stopped and searched compared to White individuals. This practice is often justified through the use of Section 60 powers under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act (1994), allowing stop and searches without suspicion in certain areas.

• An: However, this disproportionate targeting can lead to a cycle of over-policing, where higher stop rates lead to higher arrest rates, feeding into official crime statistics and reinforcing the stereotype of Black criminality.

• Eval: While stop and search practices highlight the role of systemic discrimination, critics argue that this focus on police behaviour ignores broader social factors such as poverty and family breakdown, which also influence crime rates.

Key trends of gender and crime

• Men 11x more likely to go to prison

• Men 3x more likely to be taken to court and to be convicted

• Men account for 95% of prisoners

• Men are more likely to be repeat offenders and in general commit more violent offences

Issues trusting statistics of gender and crime

• Otto Pollak - the chivalry thesis: men hate to accuse women and thus send them to their punishment, police officers dislike to arrest them, district attorneys to prosecute them, judges and juries to find them guilty, and so on

• Pilivan and Briars: typifications - women don’t fit stereotypes of criminals

• Women get away with unrecorded and undetected crime

Explaining female criminality: Parsons - functionalist sex role theory

• Females carry out the ‘expressive role’ in the family

• Girls grow up to internalise such values as caring and empathy - this reduces the likelihood of girls committing crime

• Instead boys distance themselves by engaging in ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’ such as risk taking, aggression and anti-social behaviour

• App: media advertisement, Nara smith, modern family

  • In employment, women work part time, low income jobs, have bosses which reinforce conformity

Explaining female criminality: Heidensohn - patriarchal control of women

• Subjected to fewer levels of social control than men. Wide range of informal sanctions. Therefore, women commit fewer crimes than men because of greater control and reduced opportunities to offend. They are controlled:

1. Control in the home e.g. responsibility, domestic violence, parental control

2. Control in public e.g. fear of abuse, risk of labelling

3. Control at work e.g. patriarchal, harassment, male trade unions

• Eval: Women are now less controlled, can leave the family due to divorce reform 1964 → however this can lead to single mothers who then turn to crime

Explaining female criminality: Heidensohn - pressure women feel to conform

• Women experience a greater risk of stigma or shame if they are involved in crime and deviance

• The double jeopardy of being condemned for committing the crime and losing their ‘respectable’ reputation through labelling by men as ‘unfeminine’

• Penal populism → public outcry can influence an increase in sentencing

• Breaking the norms of society and norms of women → double deviance leads to more severe punishments

• App: Lucy Letbe murdered a baby while being a paediatric nurse. She experienced extreme backlash for this murder.

• App: the average prison sentence for men who kill their female partners is 2-6 years. By contrast, women who kill their partners are sentenced ton average to 15 years.

• Eval: sometimes women get praised for the crimes they commit as justice

  • Chivalry thesis

Explaining male criminality: parsons - functionalist sex role theory

• Boys reject the expressive role at home and engage in ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’ - risk taking, aggression and anti-social behaviour

• Cohen: the absence of an adult role model in the home means boys are more likely to turn to all male street gangs as a source of masculine identity

Explaining male criminality: Messrschmidt - to assert masculinity

• Normative masculinity exists and is most highly valued by men

• Socially approved ‘real man’ and ‘defines masculinity through difference from and desire for women’.

• Masculinity is not natural but achieved as ‘an accomplishment’. Achieve their normative masculinity and this can result in crime.

• Men might commit more crime than women to 'prove they are in control of women'. From a radical feminist perspective this is largely what explains domestic violence which happens across all class groups. Heidensohn suggests domestic violence is just one criminal way men express control in private - it also happens in public through 'harassment’ on the streets.

• App: less powerful men turn to domestic violence

• Eval: more equality, have more stay at home dads

Explaining male criminality: labelling theory

• Labelling Theory suggests police are more likely to see men as potential offenders, to label their behaviour as criminal and to press charges against them

• Also men dominate the public sphere where most crime is committed.

• Males face fewer constraints than women such as housework and childcare.

• Men have less to loose in terms of reputation of they are labelled as criminal

• More independence and opportunities to commit crime.

• Young males need to be policed because of their heavy involvement in crime. The police know they are heavily involved in crime because large numbers are arrested and convicted. Therefore, the more young men are closely policed, the more any involvement in crime is picked-up.

• App: mods and rockers

  • Hall - black mugger

• Eval: may reject moral entrepreneurs

Explaining male criminality: opportunity

• Social control - males were more likely than females to be allowed out.

• Leisure activities. Men more-likely to out at night, in clubs, pubs, etc. where alcohol / illegal drugs are used. May lead to "loss of control" and relatively minor forms of crime as well as violence.

• High status male jobs provide criminal opportunities. Winlow (2001) Study of bouncers in Sunderland. Being a bouncer became an attractive job for those seeking masculine status. Assert physical prowess and also opportunities to engage in profitable criminal activities such as drug dealing and protection rackets.

Explaining male criminality: thrill seeking

• Masculinity and the thrill of the crime- Underestimate the sheer pleasure and excitement of committing crime

• Katz - robbery undertaken for the chaos, thrill and potential danger.

• Example: Football hooligans & use of drugs and alcohol.

Explaining male criminality: commit crime to be the breadwinner

• Men might commit more crime than women because they believe that they need to be financially successful to prove they are a 'real man'. The most obvious way a man can 'act out' this 'traditional breadwinner' aspect of his masculinity is to get a well-paid job.

• However, according to Merton's Strain Theory, not all men can achieve this goal through the legitimate means of getting a high paid job, as there are relatively few of these available, and as a result some will turn to crime in order to show they are successful.

Criminal justice system: Otto Pollak - Chivalry thesis

• CJS is more lenient to women because it’s agents - police officers, judges, juries etc are men

• App: self report studies suggest that female offenders are treated with more leniency

  • Hood: studies over 3000 defendants, women are approximately 1/3 less likely to be jailed in similar cases

  • OCS show females are more likely to receive a fine and less likely to be sent to prison

• EVAL: men aren’t chivalrous

Criminal justice system: Adler - liberation thesis

• As women become more liberated and society becomes less patriarchal, their crimes will become as frequent and serious as mens

• Changes in the structure of society have led to changes in women’s offending

• Freedom from traditional forms of social controls and acceptance into more ‘masculine’ roles

Reasons for an increase in female convictions

• Caddle and Crisp: interviewed 1000 women in prison and asked why they offended

  • 55% no money

  • 38% need to support children

  • 35% drink/ drugs

  • 33% no jobs

  • 33% family problems

• Living crisis → cant afford female products like pads and tampons

• Divorce → more single mothers

• Ladetes - girl group → more masculine leisure - liberation thesis

Functionalists perspective on the criminal justice system

• Functionalists view the CJS as a vital institution that upholds social order and cohesion by reinforcing shared norms and values.

• They argue that the CJS works alongside other institutions, such as education and the media, to maintain societal stability.

• By punishing deviance, the system reaffirms boundaries of acceptable behaviour and deters others from engaging in similar acts.

• For example, publicised sentences for high-profile offenders, such as those convicted of terrorism or violent crimes, serve to reinforce social norms and demonstrate the consequences of breaking the law.

• Functionalists would argue that these actions not only maintain order but also strengthen collective trust in the justice system.

Marxists perspective on the criminal justice system

• Marxists take a more critical stance, viewing the CJS as an instrument of the ruling class used to maintain power and control over the working class.

• They argue that laws and their enforcement disproportionately target lower socioeconomic groups while white-collar crimes, such as corporate fraud and tax evasion, are often overlooked or punished leniently. This imbalance perpetuates economic and social inequalities.

• A contemporary example supporting this critique is the disparity in how financial crimes, such as those revealed in the Panama Papers scandal, are handled compared to street crimes. While individuals involved in large-scale tax evasion schemes often face minimal consequences, those caught committing petty theft frequently receive harsher penalties.

• Similarly, Marxists point to the criminalisation of homelessness and poverty-related offenses, such as loitering or begging, as evidence that the CJS prioritises protecting property and the interests of the wealthy.

• Furthermore, Marxists argue that the illusion of equality before the law fosters "false consciousness," making the working class believe the system is just when it predominantly serves the elite.

Social action theory perspective on the criminal justice system

• Becker: The criminal justice system plays a critical role in "labelling" individuals as criminals. Once this label is applied, it can become a master status, overriding other aspects of a person's identity and leading them to internalise the label, which often results in further criminal behaviour (deviancy amplification).

• Social action theory emphasizes that police, prosecutors, and judges have significant discretion in deciding who to arrest, charge, or convict. This means that the system is heavily influenced by subjective interpretations and societal biases rather than a uniform application of the law

Feminist perspective on the criminal justice system

• Double deviance - Women are often judged not just for the crime, but for breaking gender norms, particularly if they are not seen as "passive" or "compliant". For example, mothers may receive harsher penalties for violating the "good mother" stereotype.

• While some theories suggest police/judges are lenient toward women, others argue that women are treated more harshly, particularly those from marginalised backgrounds

• Feminists argue that the system often disbelieves, demeanors, or blames women who report sexual or physical crimes

Primary victimisation

The direct harm experienced by an individual from a criminal act

Secondary victimisation

• Feminists argue that rape victims are often so poorly treated by the police and courts that it amounts to a secondary violation

• App: 2018 Cork, Ireland - a girl accused a man of rape but was told that her wearing a lace thong was giving consent

• An: people will be scared to report crimes, they have a distrust in police, social anxiety, fearful, need more support

Indirect victimisation

• Someone is treated unfairly because they made, supported, or were associated with a complaint regarding discrimination or harassment

• App: Manchester bombing

Positivist victimology

Believe some individuals more likely to be victims than others. It focuses on your personal responsibility to avoid being a victim.

Victim precipitation

• Victims are actively involved in, or to blame for, their victimisation

• Their actions/ behaviour lead them to become the victim within the situation

• App: men → fighting → murder

  • Youth → gangs

• App: Marvin Wolfgang - 26%of 588 homicides in Philadelphia involved victim precipitation - the victim triggered the events leading to the homicide, eg by being the first to use violence - often the case when the victim was male and perpetrator female

Victim proneness

• Characteristics that make individuals more vulnerable

• The equality act 2010

• App: physicality/ mental capacity, women’s physicality, elderly, ethnic minorities, working class less able to protect themselves due to living in council houses

• App: Hans Von Hentig - identified 13 characteristics of victims, eg females, elderly or ‘mentally subnormal’ - the implication that the victims ‘invite’ victimisation

Critical victimology

Focuses on how wider structural issues and circumstances produce victimisation. Structural factors, eg patriarchy and poverty - women and the poor at greater risk of victimisation.

Mawby and Walklate - Victimisation is a form of structural powerlessness

The proletariat are victims of BOTH the exploitation by the Bourgeoisie. They are also victims of the crime that happens in the criminogenic environments that they are forced to live in due to their lack of money (caused by exploitation). The state's power to define who they decide is a victim and the state labels some people as victims, but not others. E.g. before 1991 it was legal to rape your wife, therefore a wife was not a victim. E.g. safety crimes where employers violated the law leading to a death or injury, often explained away as the fault of 'accident prone' workers.

Critical victimology - Marxism

• Ruling class are in control structurally - CJS

• App: state crimes - Ukraine and Russia, Gaza and Israel

Critical victimology - feminism

• Patriarchy/ misogyny - men have more power, secondary victimisation, men in control of CJS

• App: Sarah Everard was murdered by Wayne Couzins - she trusted him because he was a police but he raped her then killed her

Social class and victimisation

• Among the ‘hard pressed’ the unemployed, the long term sick, low income families and those living in rented accommodation more likely to be victims

• Those living in deprived areas such as council houses - not monitored, criminal subcultures occurs, they cant afford surveillance/ protection such as ring doorbells and CCTV

• In areas of high deprivation - high levels of physical disorder, eg widespread vandalism, graffiti

• Miller: working class focal concerns → victims

Ethnicity and victimisation

• Ethnic minority groups more likely to be victims of personal crimes and homicide

• Black minority groups are up to 14 times more likely to be victims of racially motivated hate crimes than white people

• Honour crimes and forced marriages are linked to black minority ethnic groups, and women are overwhelmingly the victims

• Asylum seekers → deprived areas → victims

Age and victimisation

• Infants under 1 are most at risk of being murdered

• 16-24 years highest rate of victimisation - sexual harassment, theft, assault and abuse at home

• Older people (65+) are the least likely to be victims of violent crime but at risk of abuse, eg nursing homes where the abuse is hidden

• Sexualisation → upskirting, indecent images → cyberbullying

• Thrill seeking → night times more likely to be victims as there’s more violence

Gender and victimisation

• Men have a higher rate of victimisation - 70% of homicide victims are male

• Women are more likely to be victims of domestic and sexual violence, harassment, stalking, people trafficking and int times of armed conflict - mass rape as a weapon of war

• Physical and sexual crimes against women are less likely to be reported to the police, recorded in official statistics or result in convictions

• Many female victims of domestic violence suffer repeat victimisation

• ¼ women will experience domestic violence