History of the Modern World since 1750 - Midterm Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key concepts, people, events, and terms from the History of the Modern World since 1750 notes.

The Enlightenment

A historical movement valuing reason, empirical science, natural law, and progress; success criteria include knowable reality, rational method, ability to engineer nature, and belief in progress.

Kant’s maxim 'dare to think for yourself'

Encouragement to think independently and not accept knowledge imposed by others; a hallmark of Enlightenment thinking.

Descartes

Philosopher regarded as the starting point of modern scientific thinking; emphasized rational deduction and the mind–body distinction.

Cartesian dualism

Division between subjective knowledge (mind) and objective knowledge (facts, mathematics).

Francis Bacon

Advocate of empirical science and the scientific method (observation, experimentation, reasoning, generalising).

Deism

Belief in a non-intervening God who created natural laws; tolerant of diverse beliefs; often described as a watchmaker God.

Enlightened despotism

Rulers who used Enlightenment-inspired reforms to modernize the state while maintaining strong control.

Natural law

Inherent rights understood through reason, independent of religious revelation.

Hobbes

Philosopher who argued for a powerful sovereign in the state of nature to avoid perpetual conflict.

Locke

Philosopher who argued government exists to protect life, liberty, and property, with consent of the governed.

Rousseau

Thinker of The Social Contract; argued the general will and criticized hereditary privilege; emphasized equality and consent.

Montesquieu

Advocated separation of powers (Trias Politica) into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Condorcet

Enlightenment thinker who pushed rational reform, equality, and educational improvement, and opposed slavery.

Trias Politica

Three-branch model of government: legislative, executive, judiciary; guard against tyranny.

Public opinion

Emergence of a more informed and influential public sphere through salons, newspapers, and associations.

Natural law & Enlightened political ideas

Combines a belief in universal rights with constitutional and rational governance, shaping liberal reform.

Hobbesian state of nature

Hypothetical condition of universal war without government; justifies strong sovereign rule.

John Locke’s social contract

Idea that government derives legitimacy from protecting individuals’ contracts and liberties.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s general will

The collective will aiming at the common good, which may require citizens to obey it for freedom.

Montesquieu’s separation of powers

System designed to prevent the concentration of power and provide checks and balances.

Marquis de Condorcet

Enlightenment figure advocating rational reform, liberalism, and equality, including abolition of slavery.

Romanticism

Cultural movement reacting to Enlightenment; valued emotion, nature, and local particularism over universal rationality.

The Dual Revolution

Co-evolving of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution, reshaping society politically, economically, and culturally.

Spinning Jenny

James Hargreaves’ 1764 invention that increased textile spinning capacity.

James Watt’s steam engine

Improved engine (1777) that boosted industrial productivity and powered factories and transport.

Enclosure Movement

Process of consolidating common lands into private property, driving agricultural efficiency and urbanisation.

Commons and Open Fields

Traditional shared land used by communities; largely transformed by enclosure.

Jethro Tull seed drill

Innovative device improving sowing efficiency and crop yields.

Jenner’s smallpox vaccine

Edward Jenner’s 1796 vaccine reduced smallpox mortality and boosted public health.

Luddites

Early 19th-century protest movement of workers opposing mechanisation; often crushed by authorities.

Laissez-faire capitalism

Economic policy favoring minimal state intervention in markets.

Urbanisation

Mass movement of people from rural areas to cities, driven by industrialisation.

Cholera & public health reforms

Urban health crises spurred hygiene improvements and public health legislation.

Estates General

Historic French assembly representing the three estates; led to revolutionary demand for constitutional reforms.

Tennis Court Oath

June 1789 pledge by the Third Estate to continue meeting until a constitution was established.

Bastille

Fortress-prison stormed on July 14, 1789; symbol of royal tyranny and catalyst of revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

1789 revolutionary document affirming universal rights inspired by Enlightenment.

Constitution of 1791 (France)

Established a constitutional monarchy and extended some political rights while restricting others.

Robespierre

Jacobin leader who championed revolutionary virtue and led the Committee of Public Safety.

Reign of Terror

1793–1794 period of political repression and mass executions during the French Revolution.

Cult of the Supreme Being

Robespierre’s deist cult; attempt to replace Catholicism with a state-sponsored religion.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Military leader who rose to power in 1799, declared Emperor in 1804, and reshaped Europe.

Code Napoleon (Napoleonic Code)

Civil code (1804) abolishing feudal privileges and consolidating legal equality; introduced meritocracy for civil service.

Napoleon’s Concordat (1801)

Agreement with the Catholic Church re-establishing church-state relations under Napoleon.

Congress of Vienna

1814–1815 conference redrawing Europe’s map to restore stability, balance of power, and conservative order.

Metternich

Austrian statesman who shaped the Vienna settlement and defensive, conservative European order.

German Confederation (1815–1866)

Loose association of 39 German states created after Napoleon, focused on defence, not unification.

Zollverein (Customs Union)

Economic union of German states (from 1818/1834) promoting free trade and later unification.

Frankfurt Assembly (1848)

Attempted liberal unification of Germany that ultimately failed.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian chancellor who engineered German unification through wars and diplomacy.

Dreikaiserbund

1913 alliance among Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary (initial Three Emperors’ League).

Zweibund (Dual Alliance)

1879 alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary for mutual defense.

Reinsurance Treaty (1887)

Germany–Russia agreement to remain neutral if one of them was attacked by a third power.

Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)

War leading to German unification under Prussia after defeating France.

Weltpolitik

Wilhelm II’s policy aimed at transforming Germany into a global power through colonies and naval expansion.

Kulturkampf

Bismarck’s policy to curb Catholic influence and assert state control over church affairs (1871–1878).

Old Imperialism

Early colonial expansion driven by missionary zeal and religious motives, coupled with mercantile aims.

New Imperialism

Late 19th-century expansion driven by economic gain, strategic interests, and national prestige.

White Man’s Burden

Justification for imperialism: civilizing mission of Western powers toward colonies.

Social Darwinism

Misapplication of Darwinian theory to justify racial hierarchy and imperial domination.

Terra Incognita & Res Nullis

Latin terms: unknown lands (terra incognita) and lands not claimed by anyone (res nullis) used in imperial discourse.

Lus Soli vs Lus Sanguinis

Lus soli: birthright citizenship; Lus sanguinis: citizenship by blood descent.

Mission civilisatrice

European civilizing mission used to justify imperial rule and cultural expansion.

Culture System (Dutch Indies)

Dutch colonial policy (1830–1870) forcing local farmers to grow export crops; revenue funded the state.

Java War (1825–1830)

Java rebellion that led to harsher colonial control and the expansion of the culture system.

What was the Constitution of 1815 in the Netherlands?

Established the United Kingdom of the Netherlands after Congress of Vienna. Strong monarchy, bicameral parliament (Tweede Kamer partly elected, Eerste Kamer appointed by King). Ministers answerable to King.

❓ What was the role of the Tweede Kamer under the 1815 Constitution?

Second Chamber of States-General; partly elected indirectly by provincial estates. Very limited powers, mostly advisory

❓ What was the Eerste Kamer under the 1815 Constitution?

First Chamber (Senate), members appointed by the King for life

❓ What was the Belgian Revolution of 1830?

A revolt against Dutch rule leading to the independence of Belgium and the establishment of a separate Belgium state.

❓ What was Thorbecke’s Constitution of 1848?

A constitutional reform in the Netherlands that established a parliamentary democracy, diminishing the power of the monarchy and increasing civil rights.

❓ What was the Strijd om de Macht (Struggle for Primacy in Dutch politics)?

A political conflict between different factions in the Netherlands during the 19th century, particularly focusing on the struggle for power between the monarchy and parliamentary forces. among liberals, Catholics, Protestants, and later socialists for political dominance.

❓ What was Pillarization (Verzuiling)?

Pillarization, or Verzuiling, refers to the social and political system in the Netherlands where society was divided into distinct groups, or 'pillars', based on religion and ideology. Each pillar operated independently with its own institutions, leading to a unique form of social organization and coexistence.

❓ What was the Pacification of 1917?

A compromise in Dutch politics that established proportional representation and ensured more equitable representation for various political parties, effectively ending the political conflicts between different factions.

❓ Who was Aletta Jacobs?

Aletta Jacobs was a pioneering Dutch physician and women's rights advocate, recognized as the first woman to officially attend a Dutch university and the first woman in the Netherlands to earn a medical degree. She played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement and promoted access to contraception and education.

olympe de gous

Olympe de Gouges was a French playwright and political activist known for her feminist writings, particularly "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen" in 1791, advocating for women's rights and gender equality during the French Revolution.

❓ What was the Scramble for Africa?

The Scramble for Africa refers to the rapid invasion, colonization, and division of African territory by European powers during the late 19th century, leading to significant political and social changes across the continent.

❓ What was the Berlin Conference (1884–85)?

The Berlin Conference was a meeting where European powers negotiated their claims for African territory, formalizing the colonization of Africa and setting rules for the partition of the continent.

❓ What was the Cultivation System (Cultuurstelsel)?

The Cultivation System was a Dutch colonial policy in the 19th century that forced Indonesian farmers to cultivate cash crops for export, significantly benefiting the Dutch economy while causing hardship for local inhabitants.

❓ What was the Ethical Policy in the Dutch East Indies?

The Ethical Policy was a late 19th and early 20th-century Dutch initiative aimed at improving the welfare of the Javanese population through educational reforms and social improvements, in response to criticism of colonial practices.

❓ What was the impact of imperialism on China?

Imperialism significantly weakened China's sovereignty, leading to unequal treaties, territorial concessions, and the loss of political and economic autonomy. This period resulted in social unrest and the eventual push for reform and modernization.

❓ What were the Opium Wars?

The Opium Wars were two conflicts in the mid-19th century between China and Western powers, primarily Britain, over trade imbalances and the illegal opium trade. These wars resulted in the Treaty of Nanking and furthered foreign influence and territorial concessions in China.

What was the Boxer Rebellion?

The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign, anti-colonial uprising in China occurring from 1899 to 1901, led by the "Boxers," a group who sought to expel foreign influence and Christianity from China. The rebellion was suppressed by an eight-nation alliance, leading to harsher foreign intervention and indemnities imposed on China.

❓ Who were the Orangists?

The Orangists were supporters of the House of Orange, advocating for the monarchy in the Netherlands and often opposing republicanism. They played a significant role in Dutch politics during the 17th and 18th centuries.

❓ Who were the Radicals (Patriots)?

The Radicals, known as Patriots, were a political faction in the late 18th century in the Netherlands that advocated for republicanism and democratic reforms, often opposing the Orangists. They sought to reduce the power of the monarchy and promote civil liberties.

❓ Who were the Regents?

The Regents were a group of wealthy, powerful leaders in the Dutch Republic who held significant political control during the 17th and 18th centuries. They represented the elite bourgeoisie and often opposed the power of the monarchy, aligning themselves with the interests of commercial and urban elites.

❓ What was the role of the Stadholder?

The Stadholder was a hereditary governor in the Netherlands, serving as the military leader and representative of the monarchy. The position held significant political power, often influencing both domestic and foreign policy during the 17th and 18th centuries.

The kingdom of holland 

was a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, established in the early 19th century after the Napoleonic Wars, and played a crucial role in the development of modern Dutch governance and society.

Batvian republic

was a short-lived revolutionary state that existed in the Netherlands from 1795 to 1806, established after the French invasion and notable for its attempts at democratic governance and modern reforms.

marxism

is a political and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, advocating for a classless society through the abolition of private property and the establishment of a proletarian state.

class struggle between prolterit and bourgeois

social liberalism

is a political ideology that seeks to balance individual liberty and social justice, emphasizing the need for government intervention in the economy to address inequalities and protect civil rights.

saint simone

was a French social theorist and early socialist whose ideas on industrialism and the role of the state sought to harmonize society by emphasizing cooperative working relationships between classes.

Charles founier

was a French philosopher and early socialist known for his critique of capitalist society and advocacy for a utopian community model based on cooperative living and shared labor.

aech war 

• Conflict between the Dutch and the Muslim Sultanate of Aceh (northern Sumatra).

Treaty of Tianjin (1858)

• Signed after the Second Opium War (1856–1860) between Britain/France vs. Qing China.

• Terms:

  • Opened more Chinese ports to Western trade.

  • Allowed foreign legations in Beijing.

  • Legalized opium trade.

  • Gave Westerners freedom of movement in China.

traeaty of nanking

was the first unequal treaty between China and Britain, signed in 1842, that concluded the First Opium War. It ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened five ports to British trade, and established a framework for future foreign relations.

Charles Darwin

\who developed theory of evolution by natural selection (On the Origin of Species, 1859).

• Applied to biology: species evolve through “survival of the fittest.”