AP Psych Unit 3 (3.7-3.9)

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

behavioral perspective (behaviorism)

a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

neutral stimuli (ns)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (ucs)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response (ucr)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned response (cr)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (cs)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

generalization (classical conditioning)

(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar)

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

one-trial conditioning

the single pairing of a stimulus and response will be enough to create an association, and your new aversion won't be strengthened by further pairings

biological preparedness

refers to a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

the law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcer (conditioned reinforcer)

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

reinforcement discrimination

the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement.

reinforcement generalization

in operant conditioning, the appearance of a reinforced behavior in a new context, because of previous reinforcement in a similar context. For example, a child reinforced for using their manners at the dinner table at home may exhibit this behavior at the lunch table at school, even though the behavior was never reinforced there

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

vicarious conditioning (observational learning)

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. the opposite of prosocial behavior

cognitive maps

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it