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golgi staining procedure
stains some neurons (but not all) black
first kind
good to show shapes of neurons
nissl staining procedure
stains neuron bodies in light pink
advantages of cranial X-rays
cheap
widely available
shows fractures, hemorrhages, tumors, etc.
disadvantages of cranial X-rays
radiation
poor discrimination between brain tissue and CSF
2D images
what is angiography used for
diagnostics only - aneurysms, tumors, vasculature shifts due to lesions / tissue degeneration
is angiography risky
radiation, bruising potential
higher radiation in CT scan or cranial X-ray? why?
CT; more scans being done
EEG waves when resting
alpha waves, medium (increasing) amplitude, medium (lowering) frequency
EEG waves during a coma
slow, low amplitude waves, not deep sleep
differences between REM and NREM sleep - movement of limbs
REM no movement
NREM movement
how does the % of REM sleep change during lifespan
80% REM for babies, 25% REM for adults, older people have even less
immune system / sleep connection
less sleep decreases immune function
90 minute thing with sleep
time it takes for one "sleep cycle"
naps should be multiples of 90mins
types of insomnia based on how long they last
transient ≤ week, acute ≤ month, chronic >month
in which order are the brain lobes "epileptogenic"?
temporal 30-50%, frontal 20%, parietal 6%, occipital 5%, some mixed
vitrius humor
gel-like substance between lens and retina, keeps optic parameters stable day to day
name the nerve that transmits information from the cochlea
cranial nerve VIII
vestibulocochlear
statoacoustic
auditory
acoustic
histology
study of tissues
myelin staining procedure
stains axons (myelin)
shows connections between neurons and neuronal pathways
cranial X-rays
distinguishes between high density (bone, shown white) and low density (shown dark) areas
skull fractures, hemorrhages, tumors, etc.
angiography
visualizations of cerebral vasculature
catheter is inserted via an external artery then ran to artery of interest
contrasting dye is injected
BED
banana equivalent dose, shows radiation in an easy-to-understand mannner
clonic
jerking
retina
back of eye, actually processing light, rods and cones
rods: 120 million, detects light vs dark
cones: 6 million, detects RGB
what is processed in MT (V5)
motion
what do tumors like and where is it
SUGAR
in blood vessels
CT or CAT scans
computerized axial tomography
general process for CT scans
thin slice x-rays at many angles, rotates and takes many mini scans, computer reconstructs this into a 3D image
similarities/differences between CT scans and cranial X-rays
radiation
CT > C Xrays
2D vs 3D
disadvantages of CT scans
reliable electricity needed
radiation
MRI
magnetic field applied to brain
aligns to natural spin of the atoms in body’s water molecules which emits electromag energy in the process
complex, high-tech structural imaging of brain
DTIs
MRI that measures water diffusion at a location, shows preferred direction, allows for visualization of directional fibers, shows any areas with reduced diffusion; finds areas of partial/complete disconnection
MRI disadvantages
expensive
need to stay still
takes very long
no metal
MRIs..
what types of things can be measured
research
complex image of brain structures
volume/shape of cortical, subcortical areas
what types of disorders are DTIs interesting/relevant to
demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS)
types of scans that show structure
x-ray
CAT scans
angiography
MRI
DTI
fMRI
dynamic image of brain functionality, tracks oxygen consumption, measures regional CBF
subtraction in fMRI
take a baseline fMRI, then one during which a stimulus is included, and subtract resting cerebral blood flow from the action CBF
what process is used to visualize brain processing via BOLD imaging
fMRI (Blood-oxygen-level-dependent imaging)
difficulties with fMRIs and effects
have to be very still/bite a bar
noisy/claustrophobic
hard for young, old, people with disabilities
research approaches for fMRI
task-based (activation levels or MVPA)
resting state
brain connectivity
activation levels vs. MVPA
oxygenated blood activity vs. neuronal activity
why is brain connectivity of interest to researchers
how the brain works
how it interacts with itself
localizing function
two types of PET imaging used in Alzheimer's research
beta amyloid density
synaptic function
advantages and disadvantages of PET
advantages; good at showing location of function, high res imaging, cool colors
disadvantages; positron radiation, not as complex image fMRIs, semi-invasive bc of injection
what is it that PET does that fMRIs do better
complex imaging of brain
task-based activity
Positron Emission Tomography
earlier version of fMRI
injecting radioactive tracers (glucose, neurotransmitters) and tracking where they go in the brain
three types of electrical recordings of brain activity
single-cell recording
EEG
ERP
single cell recordings
thin electrode implanted in an animal's brain next to one neuron or many
can record singular action potentials or many
only works in one small area at a time
ElectroEncephaloGraphic recording
records brain waves/electrical activity across the brain through the layers of the membrane
records collective and synchronous activity of neurons in the cortex
EEG setup
stretchy cap, gel to conduct electrodes placed on the skull, leads/wires all around
EEG used for
changes in consciousness:
sleep
epilepsy diagnosis
depth of anesthesia
normal brain function
Event Related Potentials
give people a stimulus during an EEG and record the blip, compare to baseline EEG
averaging in ERPs
removes "background noise"
aka the chance that recorded difference from original EEG is due to confounding variable
like subtraction in fMRIs
MagnetoEncephaloGraphy
measures magnetic potentials produced by brain activity, requires room with no outside magnetism, strength of magnetic field doesn't vary, able to indicate cortical depth, better at diagnosing epilepsy
optical imaging
light through skull, scalp, CSF, and brain tissue
measures light that bounces back
gives info about source/time course of neural activity, blood flow to active areas
can be done on people who can't do fMRIs
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
application of intense magnetic fields to temporarily inactivate/scramble neurons
used in research
used in therapy (electroconvulsive therapy but much more developed)
factory reset
transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
applies weak electrical signals
clinically used to slow alzheimers onset, reduce cravings/addiction, reduce auditory hallucinations
electrodes and such
parts of a polysomnogram, and why is this important?
EEG (brain), EOG (eyes), and EMG (muscles)
EEG waves when awake
beta waves, low amplitude, high frequency
two weird phenomena during stage 2 sleep on EEG
sleep spindles and K complexes
EEG waves during deeper sleep (3 & 4)
delta waves, high amplitude, low frequency
NR3 / N3
delta/slow wave sleep, stages 3 & 4
general trend in the amplitude/frequency from awake to deep sleep
amplitude increases, frequency slows
Explain the sleep cycles that one goes through in a normal night (both stages and REM/NREM alternation).
5 NREM, 4 REM
what is the trend for slow wave sleep and REM sleep during the night? how many REM cycles during a "normal" night?
slow, REM, slow, REM, slow, REM, slow, REM, slow (4 rems 5 slow waves)
differences between REM and NREM sleep - movement of eyes
REM movement, NREM no movement
circadian rhythm
rhythm of about a day, system that runs through the SCN in the hypothalamus
which pathway acts on which part of the brain in circadian rhythms
the retinohypothalamic pathway acts on the superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN; in hypothalamus) - light on retinoganglion cells helps to set to the 24-hour cycle
pineal gland with circadian rhythm
directed by hypothalamus to make melatonin
entrainment of the circadian system
light-entrainment - light shining on retinas resets the brain back into the 24-hour cycle, helpful for jet-lag and such
three main views on the function of sleep
memory processing
recuperation/cleaning
adaptation
or all of the above
CSF circulation / sleep connection
glymphatic system circulates CSF and removes excess stuff during sleep
glymphatic system / alzheimer's connection
glymphatic system removes excess beta amyloid; beta amyloid buildup has been shown to increase chance of alzheimer's
what did the longer movie clip (Neil deGrasse Tyson & rats in maze) suggest happens during sleep and during which type of sleep
replay of day's memories during NREM, important ones stored, rest discarded
'prelearning' value of sleep
sleep consolidates memory, empties your hippocampus so you’re ready to receive new information
two processes for consolidation of memories during sleep
during stage 2 sleep, sleep spindles consolidate memory, and then a record is sent to cortex for long-term storage
hippocampus emptied
What was the third way in which you improve 'knowledge' during sleep?
Integration during REM (connections are made in the information you just learned)
sleep pressure
adenosine builds up during the day making you sleepy, this adenosine buildup is cleared out during sleep
cognitive effects of sleep deprivation
increased sleepiness
faster sleep onset
poor mood
poor vigilance
poor executive function
physical effects of sleep deprivation
lower temp. and immune function, higher BP; hormonal and metabolic changes
emotional effects of sleep deprivation
poor mood, crankiness
going to bed too late vs waking up to early cuts into…
NREM sleep vs REM sleep
caffeine and sleep
prevents sleep, effects quality, interrupts NREM
alcohol and sleep
sedation ≠ sleep
stops firing of cells in prefrontal cortex
fragments sleep
blocks REM
REM sleep important for
emotional/mental health and creativity
three sleep disturbance patterns that count as insomnia
trouble falling asleep
trouble staying asleep
waking up too early
incidence of insomnia
1 in 4 adults
sleep hygiene measures
regularity/consistency
no light, sound
cool temp.
no big meals 3hrs before bed
magnesium supplements maybe
blue light effect on sleep
activates the retinol ganglion, induces awake-ness, don't have 1hr before bed
sleep apnea
breathing is stopped during sleep, causing the person to wake up and gasp for air
prevalence of sleep apnea
3-4%
obstructive sleep apnea
85% of sleep apnea, tongue blocks airway
central sleep apnea
body messes up the breathing signals during sleep, 6%
can sleep apnea be a mix of obstructive and central
yes, 9%
standard therapy for sleep apnea and the problem with it
CPAP - continuous pushing of air
problem being its hard to get used to
incidence of narcolepsy
20-45 out of 100,000
symptoms of narcolepsy
sleep attacks w or w/o cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic hallucinations, daytime sleepiness, poor memory/concentration
types of narcolepsy
with cataplexy
without cataplexy
result of a medical condition
cataplexy vs sleep paralysis
slumping over vs. not able to move when you wake up