A&P: Chapter 16 - Blood

Plasma

Plasma

Pale yellow fluid.

• 91% water

• 7% protein

• 2% ions, nutrients, gases, wastes

Types of Plasma Proteins

• 58% albumin (primarily for osmotic balance)

• 38% globulins

• 4% fibrinogens

Serum

Plasma without clotting factors.

Globulin Uses

• Immune system

• Transport proteins

• Clotting factors

fibrin

Fibrinogen can be converted to ______ which is a clot forming protein.

Formed Elements

Cells and cell fragments.

Blood Formed Elements

1. Red Blood Cells

2. Neutrophil

3. Basophil

4. Eosinophil

5. Lymphocyte

6. Monocyte

7. Platelet

Granulocytes

(WBC) Cells have large granules/grains.

Ex.) Neutrophil, Basophil, and Eosinophil

Agranulocytes

(WBC) Cells’ granules are hard to see.

Ex.) Lymphocyte, Monocyte

blood cell fragments

Platelets are the only _________________.

White Blood Cells

(Leukocytes) Have a nucleus, protect the body against invading microorganisms, and remove dead cells and debris from tissues. “Eats” or phagocytizes.

ameboid movement

White blood cells can move via ______________.

Neutrophils

Most common WBC, normally only stay in blood for 10-12 hours, moves into other tissue and phagocytizes microorganisms, secretes chemicals which promote inflammation, secretes lysosomes which can destroy bacteria.

Pus

Dead neutrophils, cell debris, and fluid.

Basophils

Least common WBC, release histamines, releases heparin.

Histamines

Promote inflammation and are involved allergic responses.

Heparin

Prevents blood clots.

Eosinophils

Release chemicals which kill large parasites, release chemicals which promote inflammation, and many allergic responses involve too many of these.

Monocytes

Largest WBC, will leave blood and enter tissue (become macrophages), phagocytize anything dead or foreign to body.

Platelets

(Thrombocytes) Help clot blood at wounds and are basically cell fragments.

Lymphocytes

Smallest WBC, will leave blood and enter lymphatic tissue, involved in making antibodies, and involved in protection against viruses and bacteria.

Types of Lymphatic Tissue

• B cells

• T cells

divide

RBCs, WBCs, and platelets do not _______.

Hematopoiesis

All blood cells are produced through _______________, this is primarily in red bone marrow. some WBCs are produced in lymphatic tissue.

WBCs

Some ______ are produced in lymphatic tissue.

Hemocytoblasts

Special stem cells, produce different blood cells.

growth factors

The same stem cells make different blood cells via differences in ____________.

Red Blood Cells

(Erythrocytes) Account for 95% of blood’s volume, primary purpose is to transport oxygen around the body, has a biconcave structure, has no nucleus, live for approximately 110-120 days.

Biconcave Structure

Allows for more surface area and therefore better gas diffusion, and allows for bending & folding so cells can “wiggle” through capillaries.

Hemoglobin

RBC’s protein for carrying oxygen, has 4 protein chains called globins, has 4 red-pigment iron-containing hemes, most of a person’s iron is used to make it.

oxygen molecule

Each heme can attract one ________________ when exposed.

4

It takes about __ days to produce a RBC.

Erythropoiesis

Process of making RBCs.

Proerythroblasts

First stage of Hemocytoblasts, these will eventually form RBCs after more cell division. Each division slightly alters the cell until it is a RBC.

Reticulocytes

Last stage before becoming an RBC. These cells just lost their nucleus and will enter the bloodstream to finish maturing.

folate

Not enough iron, vitamin B12, or _______ in your diet will decrease RBC production.

Erythropoietin

When blood oxygen levels are low, the kidneys release a hormone called ____________, which stimulates red bone marrow to perform more erythropoiesis.

liver

The ______ also produces a small amount of erythropoietin.

recycled

Old, damaged, and abnormal RBCs are destroyed and their parts are __________. In the spleen and liver, macrophages phagocytize them and some heme groups are converted to bile pigments (& become part of bile).

2.5 million

About __________ RBCs are destroyed each second.

Bilirubin

Main bile pigment, yellow pigment.

Blood Loss Responses

1. Vascular Spasm

2. Formation of Platelet Plug

3. Blood Clotting

small

In ______ wounds, sometimes only vascular spasm and platelet plugs are enough.

large

In ______ wounds, normally (all three) vascular spasm, platelet plugs, and blood clotting are required to stop blood flow.

Vascular Spasm

A temporary but immediate constriction of a blood vessel (blood vessels have smooth muscles to allow for this constriction). Small vessels are often completely closed.

Vascular Spasm Stimulants

1. Reflex response to blood vessel damage.

2. Chemicals

Platelet Plug

An accumulation of platelets to seal up a break in a blood vessel, this actually happens in normal individuals multiple times a day.

Platelet Plug Formation

1. Tear/Break Occurs

2. Platelet Adhesion

3. von Willebrand factor activates platelets.

4. Platelet Release Reaction

5. ADP & thromboxanes connect and activate more platelets.

6. Platelet Aggregation

Platelet Adhesion

Exposed collagen fibers are connected to platelets via von Willebrand factor.

Platelet Release Reaction

Platelets release ADP and thromboxanes.

Platelet Aggregation

Fibrinogen (a blood protein) connects multiple platelets.

Blood Clotting

(Coagulation) Produces a blood clot, messy network of fibrin trapping blood cells, platelets, and fluid. Necessary for large cuts/tears, clotting factors are required.

Fibrin

Fiber-like protein.

Clotting Factors

Require vitamin K and Ca+2, diet can negatively affect blood clotting, antibodies also negatively affect blood clotting, must be activated, there are two merging pathways to activate and eventually clot blood.

Anticoagulants

Proteins which prevent blood from clotting. A normal level in the blood prevents unwanted blood clotting.

Clot Retraction

Process of slowly condensing (making smaller) a blood clot.

actin, myosin

Platelets contain ________ & ________ which contract to tighten clots.

fibroclasts

Wounds should heal via ___________ making fibers and cell division of epithelial cells.

Fibrinolysis

Dissolving of blood clots.

Plasmin

Plasminogen, normally inactive, is activated by clotting factors and converted to ________, a protein which breaks down fibrin.

Thrombus

Sometimes blood clots form accidently, such as from heart attack.

Embolus

Can cause heart attacks, strokes, or clots in the lungs (pulmonary embolism).

Transfusion

A transfer of blood from one individual to another.

Transfusion Reactions

Blood cell clumping, rupture, and clotting.

antigens

The surface of RBCs contain ________.

plasma

In _______ are antibodies.

specific

Antibodies and antigens can bind to each other, but they are very ________.

Agglutination

RBCs clump together (when antibodies and antigens combine).

Hemolysis

RBCs can be stimulated to rupture/break open (when antibodies and antigens combine).

Blood Groups

Scientists have categorized various RBC antigens into _______________.

Types of Blood Groups

1. ABO blood group

2. Rh blood group

Type A

Antigen A, Anti-B Antibody

Cannot have B or AB blood, can have A or O blood.

Type B

Antigen B, Anti-A Antibody

Cannot have A or AB blood, can have B or O blood.

Type AB

Antigen A + B, Neither Antibodies

Can have any blood type, universal recipient.

Type O

Neither Antigen, Both Antibodies

Can only receive O blood, universal donor.

rhesus monkeys

Rh blood group was named after first being studied in _____________.

Rh positive

A person has the Rh antigen. Can receive Rh+ or Rh- blood.

Rh negative

A person does not have the Rh antigen. Can only receive Rh- blood.

anti-Rh antibodies

A person who is Rh will develop _______________ when exposed to Rh antigen.

Hemolytic Disease

(of the Newborn) During first pregnancy if baby is Rh+ the first baby will develop anti-Rh antibodies. During second pregnancy if the baby is Rh+ the mom’s antibodies will cause agglutination and hemolysis in second baby’s blood.

Compatibility Tests

Tests for avoiding transfusion reactions.

Blood Typing

Determines a person’s ABO blood group and Rh blood group.

Antibody Screen

Tests a person’s plasma for unexpected antibodies.

Crossmatch

A test transfusion in a test tube checks for agglutination.

Complete Blood Count

Blood analysis of various blood cell amount.

Complete Blood Count Tests

1. RBC count

2. Hemoglobin Measurement

3. Hematocrit Measurement

4. White Blood Cell Count

5. Differential WBC Count

Hematocrit Measurement

Determines % of blood volume that is RBC.

Differential WBC Count

Determines % of each of the 5 kinds of WBCs.

Clotting

Testing the blood’s ability to clot. Measures how long it takes blood to start clotting.

1. Platelet Count

2. Prothrombin Time

Blood Chemistry Tests

Testing amounts of non-cell components.

Erythrocytosis

(Blood Disorder) too many RBCs, thicker blood, reduced blood flow, can clog capillaries (small blood vessels).

Caused By: genetics (polycythemia vera) & low oxygen supply.

Anemia

(Blood Disorder) not enough hemoglobin in blood, can be not enough RBCs or just not enough hemoglobin protein.

Caused By: Iron, folate, or B12 deficiencies in diet, damage to bone marrow stem cells, destruction or loss of RBCs, sickle cell disease.

Leukemia

(Blood Disorder) Cancer with abnormal production of one or more WBCs, very susceptible to infections.

von Willebrand Disease

(Blood Disorder) Common disorder (1/1000 individuals), platelet plugs can’t form because there is no von Willebrand factor.

Hemophilia

(Blood Disorder) Abnormal or lack of blood clotting, normally one or more clotting factors are not produced by the body.

Caused By: Genetics and the most recognized is sex-linked and is much more common in males.