PA Final Exam Review

Ideology

An individual’s beliefs and values about the role of government, society, and the economy.

Significance of Ideology

Shapes how policymakers interpret problems and determine legitimate solutions, influencing agenda-settings and budget priorities.

“Big” government

Refers to an expansive, active government that provides many services and regulations.

“Small” government

Emphasizes limited intervention, lower taxes, and fewer public programs.

Types of Economic Goods

Categorized based on rivalry and excludability: Private goods, Public goods, Common-pool resources, and Club/toll goods.

Bicameralism

A legislative structure with two chambers—often a lower house and an upper house.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to interpret the constitutionality of laws or executive actions.

Homo Economicus

A theoretical model of humans as perfectly rational, self-interested decision-makers with full information.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making processes.

Political Acceptability

How likely a policy is to gain support or avoid strong opposition from various stakeholders.

Administrative Feasibility

Practicality for agencies to implement a policy based on their capacity, resources, and technical ability.

Measurement

The process of defining, observing, and quantifying variables for policy evaluation.

Representativeness of a Sample

The extent to which a sample mirrors the larger population's characteristics.

Randomized Control Trials

Research method where participants are randomly assigned to treatment or control groups to establish causal effects.

Democracy

A political system where leaders are chosen through free and fair elections and institutions constrain power.

Authoritarianism

A system where power is concentrated in a leader or small group with limited civil liberties.

Democratic Backsliding

The gradual erosion of democratic norms and institutions.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes that the U.S. Constitution and federal laws override conflicting state laws.

Federalism

Divides authority between national and state governments.

Preemption

Occurs when federal law blocks states from regulating in a certain area.

Descriptive Representation

Elected officials physically or socially resemble the groups they represent.

Essentialism

The incorrect assumption that all members of a group share the same interests or priorities.

Majority-minority Districts

Electoral districts where racial or ethnic minorities constitute the majority.

Expressed/Enumerated Powers

Specific authorities granted to the federal government by the Constitution.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by federal and state governments, like taxation.

Reserved Powers

Powers not given to the federal government, left to states under the Tenth Amendment.

Bounded Rationality

Refers to the limitations of human rationality in decision-making.

Prospect Theory

Explains that decisions are made based on perceived gains and losses relative to a reference point.

Dual-Process Theory

Poses that decision-making involves a fast, intuitive system and a slower, analytical one.

Equality

Treating everyone the same or providing equal resources.

Equity

Fairness in addressing different needs and starting points.

Justice

Creating systems that produce fair outcomes over time based on equity.

Matching

Pairs treated and untreated units with similar characteristics to estimate causal effects.

Difference-in-Differences

Compares changes over time between a treatment group and a control group.

Regression Discontinuity

Identifies causal effects by comparing units just above and below a cutoff for eligibility.

Ambiguity Neglect

Ignoring uncertainty and focusing only on known risks.

Externalities

Costs or benefits imposed on others not involved in a transaction.

Perverse Incentives

Policies that unintentionally encourage harmful behaviors.

Qualitative Research

Uses interviews and observations to understand meaning and context.

Quantitative Research

Uses numerical data to measure patterns and test hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research

Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches for comprehensive understanding.

Causation

One factor directly produces a change in another.

Counterfactuals

Hypothetical scenarios explaining what would have occurred without a cause.

Spurious Correlation

Misleading association caused by an unobserved variable.

Efficiency

Achieving the greatest benefits with the least cost.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

Quantifies costs and benefits in monetary terms to evaluate policies.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Compares costs of policies relative to non-monetary outcomes.