bio lab exam 2

cranial superior

towards head

caudal/inferior

towards feet

ventral

towards belly/front

dorsal

towards back

medial

towards midline of body

lateral

towards side of body

proximal

closer to a specific point

distal

further away from a specific point

thoracic

chest region

abdominal

abdomen region

pelvic region

area where urinary and reproductive structures end

what is the anatomical term for "towards the belly or abdomen?

humans: anterior/ventral
animals:ventral

the lung has multiple lobes (sections). which lung below is closer to the head?

cranial lobe

T or F: using the glomerulus as a point of reference, the proximal tubule is further away from the glomerulus compared to other components of the kidney nephron

false

nares

location: nostrils
function: sense chemicals in the air

vibrissae

location: whiskers
function: (tactile sensation) sense movement in air and physical contact

ear

function: hearing

forelimb

location: front legs closer to head
function: locomotion

hindlimb

location: back legs closer to rail
function: locomotion

anus

location: hole at the beginning of the tail
function: indigestible material is eliminated from the body

urethral orifice

location: in males, at penis
in females, top hole in pelvic area
function: where urine exits, in males semen exits from this too

tail

function: temperature regulation (area where heat can be lost), balance

penis

location: mostly hidden beneath skin and fur but see urethral orifice
function: opening of urethra from which excretory products (urine and semen) exit body

scrotal sac

location: bulbous sac below penis
function: house testes

mammary papillae

location: nipples along abdomen of females, cranial set closer to head and caudal set closer to tail
function: external openings of mammary glands where milk exits

vaginal orifice

location: second hole in between urethral orifice and anus
function: depression right below urethral orifice, entrance to vagina

what is the function of nares?

sense chemicals in air

what are two differences between the urethral orifice and the vaginal orifice?

-urethral orifice is where urine comes out of (sperm as well in males) whereas the vaginal orifice is the opening into the vagina in females
-urethral orifice is found in both males and females whereas the vaginal orifice is only found in females

which is more cranial, the forelimbs or hindlimbs?

forelimbs

masseter muscle

location: cheeks
function: large cheek muscles on either side of face; main muscle for chewing

tongue

function: muscle suitable for properly chewing and swallowing food, tasting; also important for speech

palate

location: top of mouth extending from the front to the back of the oral cavity
function: seperate oral cavity from nasal cavity

esophagus

location: long tube along trachea in between oral cavity and stomach
function: transports fluid and foods into stomach

stomach

location: muscular j-shaped structure
function: stores food and begins protein digestion

small intestines (duodenum, jejunum and ileum)

location: starting from stomach, long narrow tube in the abdomen; found usually towards the left part of the abdomen
function: of duodenum- complete digestion of food into monomers of jejunum and ileum- absorb monomers and water

liver

location: large brown/red structure at the top of the abdomen
function: produce bile salts and determines distribution of nutrients

gall bladder

location: underneath liver; attached to liver sometimes
function: stores bile salts

pancreas

location: feather-like structure underneath the stomach
function: produces bicarbonate to reduce acidity of acid chyme and produces enzymes (lipases, nucleases, proteases) to digest nutrients

mesentary

location: clear tissue connecting intestines when spread out
function: a fold of the peritoneum which attaches the stomach, small intestine, pancreas, spleen and other organs to the posterior wall of the abdomen

what are the three tissue layers that make up the duodenum and how each layer functions to enable the duodenum to perform its overall functions?

epithelium-secretion of enzymes
smooth muscle-peristalsis
connective tissue-connects epithelium to muscle tissue

why does it make sense that the stomach, gall bladder, and pancreas all empty into the duodenum

duodenum is where all nutrients are broken down to their monomer form. stomach, gall bladder, and pancreas produce products to aid in this. stomach produces acid chyme that begins the breakdown of proteins so it can be further broken down in the duodenum. the gall bladder provides bile salts that are involved in breaking down fats. pancreas produces enzymes used in the duodenum to breakdown nutrients into monomers. it also produces bicarbonate to reduce the acidity of the acid chyme coming in from the stomach.

what are the two main functions of the stomach?

store food and begin chemical digestion of proteins

trachea

location: long clear tube with ridges
function: part of conduction system; connects pharynx to bronchi

bronchi

location: 2 branches off of trachea into left and right lungs
function: part of conduction system connecting trachea to bronchioles

lungs
-left lung
-right cranial lobe
-right medial lobe
-right caudal lobe
-right accessory lobe

location: behind and around heart, right cranial is close to head, right medial is in the middle, right caudal is on the bottom and the right accessory lobe is below the heart
function: contains bronchioles (conduction system) and alveoli (gas exchange-O2 into blood and CO2 from blood)

diaphragm

location: thin muscle strip between chest cavity and liver; likely cut when opening up chest cavity
function: allows for inhalation and exhalation, contraction is inhalation and relaxation is exhalation

T or F when the diaphragm contracts you exhale

false

right/left atria

location: right- small right upper chamber
left- small left upper chamber
function: receive blood, right-from body and left- from lungs

right/left ventricles

location: lower large chamber; part of it is right ventricle and part is left (hard to distinguish)
function: expels blood from heart, right- to lungs and the left to the body

arterial system vessels
-aortic arch
-descending aorta
-brachiocephalic artery
-carotid arteries

location: red vessels
-curved part of aorta
-vertical section of aorta
-1st branch (right) off of aortic arch
-goes up along trachea on left and right sides
function: carries blood away from
-aortic arch carries all blood away from heart to rest of the body
-brachiocephalic artery supplies blood to head and neck and right side
-carotid arteries supplies blood to brain, neck and face

venous system vessels
-cranial vena cava
-inferior vena cava

location: blue vessels
-coming in from the top of the heart
-coming in from bottom of heart
function: returns blood to heart from
-head and neck
-lower part of the body

atria/auricles (left and right)
-right: small right upper chamber
-left: small left upper chamber

location:
-right: small right upper chamber
-left: small left upper chamber
function: recieve blood
-right from body
-left to body

ventricles (left and right)

location: lower large chambers; separated by inter ventricular septum and groove/sulcus
left side has thicker cardiac muscle than right side
function: expels blood from heart
-right: to lungs
-left: to body

aorta

location: large vessel, lower vessel on top of the heart (opens to the side or top depending on how it was cut out)
function: carries all blood from heart (left ventricle) to the rest of the body

pulmonary trunk/artery

location: smaller vessel above the aorta
function: carries blood from heart (right ventricle) to lungs

interventricular sulcus/groove (outside)

location: diagonal line found on ventral surface of heart
function: separates left and right ventricles

interventricular septum (inside)

location: thick cardiac muscle tissue in between left and right side of heart
function: separates left and right ventricles

atrioventricular valves
-tricuspid valve (right AV valve)
-bicuspid (mitral/left AV valve)

location: in between atrium and ventricle on left and right sides of heart
-3 leaflet valve
-2 leaflet valve
function: prevents backflow of blood from ventricle back into atrium

semilunar valve

location: can find through the aorta and through pulmonary trunk
function: prevents backflow of blood into ventricle once it is pumped out

papillary muscles

location: muscle attached to the lower part of the ventricles and attached to chordae tendinae
function: prevents the leaflets of the atrioventricular valve from protruding into the atrium as it contracts and pulls on the chordinae tendinae attached to the leaflets

chordae tendineae

location: thin strings attached to AV valves
function: prevents the leaflets of the atrioventricular valve from protruding into the atrium

the ___ is the major vessel that carries blood bck to the heart from the lower part of the body

inferior vena cava

number the following structures in the order that a red blood cell will travel through when it leaves the left ventricle carries oxygen to the brain, and to the right atria of the heart

descending aorta-N/A
carotid artery-2
cranial vena cava-3
inferior vena cava-N/A
aorta-1

when the papillary muscle contracts

the chordae tendinae shorten and the leaflets of the atrioventricular valve do not protrude into the atrium

penis

location: pronounced structure near bottom of pelvic cavity; can see on outside of the body
function: connected to urinary bladder by urethra; where urine and sperm exit body

testis

location: round structure within scrotum
function: produces sperm and testosterone (male sex hormone)

scrotum (external)

location: outer sac in male's pelvis
function: the scrotum (or scrotal sac) is a part of the external male genitalia located behind and underneath the penis. it is the small, muscular sac that contains and protects the testicles, blood vessels, and part of the spermatic cord.

vas deferens

location: thin tube that wraps around bladder and connects testes to urethra; there is 1 on the left and right side of the body.
function: tube that leads sperm from testes to urethra

seminal vesicle

location: 2 large folded/wrinkled structures on either side of the bladder; attached to vans deferens near the base of the bladder
function: an accessory gland that produces a sugar-rich fluid (fructose, other carbohydrates) to provide source of nutrients/energy to sperm; part of semen

vaginal opening/vaginal orifice (external)

location: middle hole
function: opening of vagina where penis is inserted

vagina

function: receives penis and serves as birth canal

uterine horn

location: either side of descending colon
function: site of implantation in mice

ovary

location: by kidneys--looks like two small dots
function: produces eggs and female sex hormone estrogen

place the following structures in the correct order through which a sperm travels out of the body

testes-1
urethra-3
urethral orifice-4
vas deferens-2

kidney
-medulla
-cortex
-renal pelvis

location: kidney bean shaped structure in the back of the abdomen and on either side of the descending colon
-inner part of kidney (darker in color)
-outer part of kidney (lighter in color)
-yellow/beige funnel-shaped structure near where the kidney kinks or bends
function: filters blood to produce a filtrate that will undergo reabsorption and secretion to become urine
-medulla is the inner part of the kidney where nephrons are located
-cortex is outer part of kidney where nephrons are located
-renal pelvis is a funnel-shaped structure that takes urine to the ureter

urinary bladder

location: follow the descending colon to a small muscular structure, can also find it by following the ureters from the kidney (side) to the center (bladder)
function: where urine is stored

ureter

location: thin long tubes leading from the kidney to the bladder
function: where urine travels through from the kidney to the bladder

urinary opening

location: external- superior most hole in males and females
internally- below the bladder and were the opening is located externally
function: where urine exits out of the body

regarding a juxtamedullary nephron... a) where is it located within the kidney and b) what is its function?

a) it extends into the medulla of the kidney
b) it produces urine

if there was damage to the ureters, what would be the consequence?

there would be less urine being stored in the bladder

after urine is produced in the kidney, where does it go to next?

renal pelvis

spleen

location: dark brown/red, oval shaped structure right below the stomach
function: filters blood and removed old, malformed, or damaged red blood cells. produces immune cells and filters out foreign intruders; acts as a reservoir for red blood cells and immune cells in case of emergency

what role does the spleen play in the immune system?

filters blood and removes old, malformed or damaged red blood cells. produces immune cells and filters out pathogens; acts as a reservoir for blood cells and immune cells if needed

brain: cerebrum (external)
-cortex
-hemispheres: left and right
-lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital

location: large, convoluted part of brain, large surface area that can still fit in the skull
-outer part
-left and right sides on either side of longitudinal fissure
-frontal: front part, parietal: top and towards the back, temporal: side, occipital: bottom back
function: voluntary movement and cognitive functions
-frontal: decision making, planning, speech, control skeletal muscles
-parietal: integration of sensory information, sense of touch
-occipital: combining images, object recognition, processing visual stimuli and pattern recognition
-temporal: hearing and understanding language

brain: cerebellum (external)

location: back part of brain on top of spinal cord and brainstem
function: coordinates movements and balance
-hand eye coordination
-learning and remembering motor skills

brain: brainstem (external)
-medulla oblongata
-pons

location: right above spinal cord
-right above spinal cord and below cerebellum
-above medulla oblongata
function: homeostasis (breathing, heart rate, digestion and swallowing)
-coordination of large-scale
-control arousal and sleep
-reticular formation
-blocks familiar and unimportant information (sensory filter)
-transmits important

brain: optic chiasm (external)

location: underneath brain towards the front of the brain (often looks like a thick solid "x")
-where optic nerves partially cross
function: optic nerves--caries visual information from retina to the brain. crossing allows brain to receive visual signal from the visual fields of both eyes

brain: spinal cord (external)

location: long thin extension from brain
function: carry afferent and efferent signals between body and brain

brain: cerebral fissure (external)

location: indentation at the top of the brain dividing left and right cerebral hemispheres
function: separates the 2 hemispheres longitudinal

internal cerebrum
-corpus callosum

location: same as external
-solid, diagonal band in between cerebrum and thalamus; bundle of nerve fibers
function: see above
-connects left and right hemispheres so they can communicate with each other

internal cerebellum

location: behind cerebrum and sitting above brainstem

internal optic chiasm

location: small circle at the bottom of brain and right behind frontal lobe

internal diencephalon

location: larger circle right below corpus callosum
function: input center for sensory input going to the cerebrum

thalamus

function: receives input from cerebrum that regulates emotions

internal brainstem

location: medulla oblongata- right above spinal cord and underneath cerebellum
-to the left/right of the medulla oblongata

internal ventricles

location: spaces in the brain
function: spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid that carries nutrients to and wastes from CNS cells; carries O2, hormones, etc.

internal matter
-gray matter
-white matter

location:
-outer, darker-colored edge
-lighter colored center
function:
-contains cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons-- integration
-contains myelinated axons-- transmit information

dendrites

function: receive information from other neurons

cell body

function: where most of neuron's organelles are located

axon hillock

function: where signals that travel down the axon are generated