Ethical Theories & Kantian Moral Philosophy: Key Concepts and Applications

Consequentialism

The view that the morality of an action depends entirely on its consequences or outcomes.

Deontology

A moral theory that judges actions based on rules or duties rather than consequences.

Utilitarianism

A type of consequentialism that says the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness for the greatest number.

A priori

Knowledge that is known independent of experience, such as logic or math.

Empirical

Knowledge based on observation, experience, or evidence from the world.

Nozick and his experience machine example

A thought experiment where you can plug into a machine that gives only pleasurable false experiences, used to challenge hedonism.

Nozick's conclusions from the experience machine example

People value authenticity, real achievement, and genuine connection, not just pleasurable feelings.

The transformation machine

A hypothetical machine that changes you into the person you want to become, raising questions about identity and value.

Possible objections to Nozick's conclusions

His arguments may not apply to people in hardship or those who genuinely prefer a hedonistic lifestyle.

Mill

A utilitarian philosopher who emphasized happiness, higher pleasures, and general well-being.

Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures

Higher pleasures use intellect and are unique to humans; lower pleasures are bodily or animal-like.

Mill's argument for higher pleasures

People who experience both higher and lower pleasures tend to prefer higher ones, so they are more valuable.

Problems with Mill's higher pleasures argument

Competent judges may be biased, not everyone prefers higher pleasures, and the distinction is unclear.

Responses to Mill's critics

Supporters say higher pleasures use uniquely human capacities and that preference reveals value.

Problems with "better to be a dissatisfied human or Socrates"

Raises questions about whether misery with intelligence is better than ignorant happiness.

Mill's basic argument for utilitarianism in Chapter IV

People desire happiness, so happiness must be the only thing that is good as an end.

Two senses of "desirable"

It can mean "actually desired" or "worthy of desire," causing ambiguity in Mill's argument.

Mill's move against alternatives to happiness

Things like money or virtue are not alternatives but parts of what happiness consists of.

Similarity to desire-satisfaction theories

Mill's view resembles the idea that happiness is having one's desires fulfilled.

Counter-intuitive examples in utilitarianism

Cases like killing one to save five that seem wrong even if they maximize happiness.

Utilitarian responses to counter-examples

They may appeal to rules, long-term trust, role obligations, or case-specific reasoning.

Heuristic moral rules

Ordinary rules like "don't lie" or "don't kill" are useful guides but not absolute in utilitarianism.

Role obligations in utilitarianism

Certain roles (like doctors or judges) may restrict certain actions even for the greater good.

Demandingness objection

Utilitarianism may require too much sacrifice from individuals for the sake of others.

Impartiality problem

Utilitarianism may force us to treat loved ones and strangers equally.

Measuring happiness problem

It is difficult to quantify and compare happiness across people.

Kantian good will

Acting out of respect for moral duty rather than desire; the only thing good without qualification.

Acting on good will vs inclination

Acting from duty has moral worth; acting from desire does not.

Problems with acting only on desire

Desires can be selfish, unreliable, or morally irrelevant.

Kant's view of moral motivation

We can act from reason and duty rather than from desire or emotion.

Our ordinary view of motivation

We usually think people act based on desires, goals, or emotions.

Acting in accord with duty

Doing the right thing but for non-moral reasons (habit, benefit, comfort).

Acting from duty

Doing the right thing because it is morally required, which has moral worth for Kant.

Examples

grocer, man tired of life, hospital volunteer : Illustrations of the difference between acting from duty and from inclination.

First formulation of the categorical imperative

Act only on maxims you could will to be universal laws of nature.

Basic argument for the first formulation

Morality must come from universalizable principles rooted in reason.

Kant's four core examples

Suicide, lying promise, neglecting talents, and refusing to help others.

Problems with Kant's examples

Interpretations may seem forced, or maxims can be rephrased to pass the test.

Recognizing other applications of the first formulation

Applying universalization to new moral dilemmas.

Second formulation of the categorical imperative

Treat rational beings as ends in themselves and never merely as means.

How this still allows treating people as means

Using others instrumentally is fine if their dignity and autonomy are respected.

Examples and illustrations of the second formulation

Lying, exploitation, manipulation vs honest agreements and consent.

Recognizing other applications of the second formulation

Identifying when someone is reduced to a tool rather than respected.