Heimler Unit 1 Review

1. Overview & Key Concepts (1491–1607)

What time period does APUSH Unit 1 cover?

1491 to 1607, spanning from the year before Columbus’s arrival in the New World to the establishment of Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in North America.

What are the three main focuses of Unit 1?

The social and political landscape of Indigenous peoples, the causes of European exploration, and the effects of European colonization on the Americas.

What is the most important thing to remember about pre-Columbian Native Americans?

They were diverse and varied, with geography playing a major role in shaping cultural, political, and economic differences among societies.

What misconception is common about Indigenous peoples before European contact?

That all Native Americans were the same, when in reality they had diverse societies, languages, and cultures shaped by environment and geography.

2. Indigenous Societies Before Contact

What crop was most influential in the development of complex Native societies?

Maize (corn), first cultivated in southern Mexico around 5000 BCE.

How did maize cultivation spread throughout the Americas?

Through trade networks and migration routes.

What were the four main effects of maize cultivation?

1) Economic development through trade and specialization, 2) Permanent settlements due to agriculture, 3) Advanced irrigation techniques, and 4) Social diversification with labor specialization and hierarchies.

How did maize lead to economic development?

Surplus food allowed more people to specialize in other jobs and trade, increasing prosperity.

Why did maize cultivation lead to permanent settlements?

Because growing crops required people to remain in one place to tend fields.

How did maize lead to social diversification?

Agricultural surpluses allowed for specialized labor and created hierarchies and complex political systems.

Why is maize cultivation compared to other world civilizations?

Like early civilizations in Africa, Asia, and Europe, it allowed for larger, more complex societies with structured governments and specialized economies.

3. Regional Native Groups & Geography

What is the key concept linking geography to Native American societies?

Geography determined their way of life, housing, diet, and political structures.

Who were the Iroquois and where did they live?

They lived in the Northeast, were semi-sedentary, and relied on maize and other staple crops while living in longhouses made from abundant timber.

What were Iroquois longhouses?

Large wooden structures that could house multiple generations, sometimes up to 200 people.

Who were the Cherokee and what characterized their society?

A southeastern group who adopted maize, beans, and squash agriculture around 1000 BCE, but remained semi-sedentary, combining farming with seasonal hunting and gathering.

What does matrilineal mean and which group practiced it?

Matrilineal means power and possessions were passed through the mother’s line; the Cherokee and similar tribes practiced this.

What were the Mississippian cultures known for?

Large towns near the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers with populations of 4,000–6,000, extensive trade networks, rich agriculture, and social hierarchies.

What was the largest Mississippian settlement?

Cahokia, which had between 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants.

How did geography shape Mississippian culture?

Fertile soil and river systems supported agriculture, trade, and complex societies.

How did Great Basin and Great Plains tribes adapt to their environment?

They developed nomadic lifestyles due to the hot, dry climate and scarce resources.

Which group exemplified Great Basin nomadism?

The Ute, who moved seasonally in groups of 20–100, living in animal-skin teepees and relying on hunting and gathering.

What animals did the Ute primarily hunt?

Buffalo, deer, and antelope.

How did Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest and California differ from Plains tribes?

They lived in permanent settlements despite not practicing agriculture, relying instead on abundant coastal and forest resources.

Which groups represent Pacific Northwest tribes?

The Chinook and Chumash, who built permanent settlements based on fishing and gathering.

4. European Exploration: Causes (Gold, God, Glory)

What are the three main motivations for European exploration?

Gold (economic motives), God (religious motives), and Glory (political motives).

What key event in 1453 spurred European exploration?

The Ottoman Empire’s capture of trade routes between Europe and Asia, forcing Europeans to seek sea routes.

What two technological advancements helped European navigation?

The caravel ship (developed by Portugal) and the adoption of Arab and Chinese tools like the magnetic compass and astrolabe.

What was the caravel and why was it important?

A fast, maneuverable ship using the lateen sail that allowed Europeans to sail efficiently in different wind directions.

What were joint-stock companies and why were they significant?

Business ventures funded by multiple investors to share the risk and profit of exploration, enabling larger expeditions.

Who led Portuguese exploration efforts?

Prince Henry the Navigator.

What was Portugal’s strategy for overseas expansion?

Establishing a trading post empire along Africa’s coast to control trade routes instead of building colonies.

How did Spain respond to Portugal’s success?

By sponsoring Columbus to find a westward route to Asia since Portugal controlled the routes around Africa.

When and where did Columbus arrive in the Americas?

In October 1492, landing in the Caribbean while believing he had reached Asia.

Who confirmed that Columbus had discovered a new continent?

Amerigo Vespucci.

Which two conquistadors led major Spanish conquests in the Americas?

Hernán Cortés (Aztecs) and Francisco Pizarro (Incas).

What was the economic impact of Spain’s conquests?

Massive influxes of gold and silver, leading to the rise of capitalism and decline of feudalism in Europe.

What proverb summarized Spain’s motivation for continued colonization?

“As long as y’all got the G’s, we’ll keep sending the C’s,” meaning as long as wealth flowed, Spain would keep sending conquistadors.

5. Spain’s Empire, Labor Systems, and Caste Structure

What was the Encomienda system?

A coerced labor system granting Spanish colonists (encomenderos) land and control over Indigenous labor in exchange for supposed protection and Christianization.

What was the true nature of the Encomienda system?

It became a form of communal slavery, with Indigenous people forced into plantation and mining labor.

Why did Spain transition from Indigenous to African labor?

High Indigenous mortality rates from disease and escape attempts made enslaved African labor more reliable.

What was traded between Europeans and African groups in the slave trade?

Guns and goods in exchange for enslaved Africans captured in wars or raids.

What was the Spanish caste (casta) system?

A racial hierarchy organizing colonial society by race and birthplace, with Spaniards born in Spain on top and Indigenous and African peoples at the bottom.

What determined social position in the Spanish caste system?

The amount of “white blood” or European ancestry a person had.

6. The Columbian Exchange

What was the Columbian Exchange?

The intercontinental transfer of plants, animals, minerals, diseases, and people between the Old World (Afroeurasia) and the New World (Americas) following 1492.

Which disease was most devastating to Indigenous populations?

Smallpox, introduced by the Spanish, which wiped out around 50–90% of some populations.

Why were Indigenous peoples so vulnerable to European diseases?

They lacked immunities due to long isolation from Afroeurasia.

How did smallpox aid Spanish conquest?

It decimated Indigenous resistance, helping small Spanish forces conquer large empires.

What crops were introduced from Europe, Africa, and Asia to the Americas?

Wheat, olives, grapes, rice, bananas, and sugarcane.

What crops were introduced from the Americas to Europe?

Maize, potatoes, and manioc, which improved European nutrition and caused a population boom after 1700.

What animals were introduced to the Americas?

Pigs, sheep, cattle, and especially horses.

How did horses transform Indigenous life?

They revolutionized hunting, warfare, and mobility, especially for Plains tribes like the Apache, Comanche, and Kiowa.

What environmental consequence did livestock have in the Americas?

Free-ranging animals destroyed Indigenous crops and altered landscapes.

What minerals were most significant in the Columbian Exchange?

Gold and silver extracted from the Americas and sent to Europe.

What was the “Middle Passage”?

The brutal transatlantic journey enslaved Africans endured when transported to the Americas for labor.

7. Cultural Differences & Early Contact

What were four major worldview differences between Europeans and Indigenous peoples?

Land use, religion, gender roles, and family structure.

How did European and Indigenous land views differ?

Europeans believed in private ownership, while Indigenous peoples viewed land as communal and spiritual.

How did Indigenous religions differ from European Christianity?

Indigenous beliefs often included multiple gods and spirits connected to nature, while Europeans believed in one God.

How did gender roles differ between Europeans and Indigenous peoples?

European societies were patriarchal, while Indigenous groups were more egalitarian and often matrilineal.

How did family structures differ?

Europeans emphasized nuclear families; Indigenous societies lived in extended family groups emphasizing shared responsibility.

What was one example of Indigenous conversion blending religions?

The Virgin of Guadalupe, which combined Christian and Aztec spiritual elements.

Why did some Indigenous peoples adopt Christianity?

They observed Europeans’ relative immunity to disease or sought to integrate the Christian God alongside their own deities.

How did Europeans adopt Indigenous culture?

They learned agricultural techniques, survival skills, and, in the French case, often intermarried with Native women for trade alliances.

8. Resistance, Adaptation, and Debates

What were two main forms of Indigenous resistance to European intrusion?

Diplomatic alliances and military resistance.

What is an example of Indigenous diplomatic resistance?

Tribes allying with the Spanish to overthrow the Aztec Empire.

What was an example of Indigenous military resistance during this period?

The Taíno Rebellion of 1511 in Puerto Rico, where Indigenous people resisted the Encomienda system and Spanish cultural domination.

What was the outcome of the Taíno Rebellion?

Despite initial success, Spanish weaponry and technology ultimately crushed the revolt.

What major debate occurred over the treatment of Indigenous peoples?

The Valladolid Debate in Spain.

Who argued that Indigenous people were fully human and deserving of humane treatment?

Bartolomé de las Casas.

Who argued that Indigenous people were inferior and benefited from servitude?

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda.

What biblical story was used to justify African slavery?

The Curse of Ham, where Europeans falsely claimed dark skin was the mark of servitude.

What did the religious debate reveal about European views?

That there was no consensus on how to treat Indigenous peoples, leading to continued rationalizations for slavery and exploitation.