Introduction to Psychology and Brain Function

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Basic Research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base with an explicit purpose of finding new information.

Applied Research

Studies that aim to solve practical problems using psychology to better the world.

Willhelm Wundt

Considered the father of modern psychology, opened the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Psychoanalysis

Theory of personality; also a therapeutic technique that attempts to provide insights into thoughts and actions by exposing and interpreting the underlying unconscious motives/conflicts.

Gestalt Psychology

The psychological perspective that emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Structuralism

The theory that the structure of conscious experience could be understood by analyzing the basic elements of thoughts/sensations.

Functionalism

The theory that emphasized the functions of consciousness or the ways consciousness helps people adapt to their environment.

Behaviorism

A branch of psychology that focuses on how people learn through their interactions with the environment.

Cognitive Theory

How people think; emphasizes how we take in, process, store, and retrieve information.

Biological Theory

The physical structures and substance underlying a particular behavior, thought, or emotion, explained by brain chemistry, genetics, glands, etc.

Socio-cultural Theory

How thinking/behavior changes in different situations as a result of cultural influences.

Humanistic Theory

How healthy people strive to reach their full potential, motivated by satisfying needs with the goal of reaching one's full potential once basic needs are met.

Psychodynamic Theory

How behavior is affected by unconscious drives/conflicts, explained through unconscious motivation and unresolved inner conflicts from one's childhood.

Behavioral Theory

Observable behavior; belief that humans/animals learn certain responses through rewards, punishments, and observations.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher will actively manipulate and, if the hypothesis is correct, that will cause a change in the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that should show the effect of the independent variable; the outcome of experiments/variable being measured.

Confounding Variable

A variable other than the independent variable that could produce a change in the dependent variable.

Experimental Group

The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable; aka the experimental condition.

Control Group

The participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable; aka the control condition.

Scientific Method

The process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation.

Replicate

Reproducing a study to see if you get the same results.

Informed Consent

Participants must be informed, in advance, about the general nature of research/any potential risk.

Right to Confidentiality

Individual data about research participants should never be discussed/released.

Right to Debriefing

Participants have the right to receive a complete explanation of the research at the end of the study.

Animal Care

Animals must have clean housing with adequate ventilation, appropriate food, and be well cared for.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of a nervous system.

Dendrite

The branching extensions of a neuron that receives information and conducts impulses toward the cell body (soma).

Axon

The extension of a neuron through which neural impulses are sent.

Axon terminal

The end point of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored.

Synapse

The tiny, fluid-filled gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another.

Neurotransmitters

A chemical messenger that travels across the synapse from one neuron to the next and influences whether a neuron will generate an action potential.

Action potential

A neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when it is at rest and capable of generating an action potential; set and ready to fire.

Refractory period

'Recharging' period during which a neuron, after firing, cannot generate another action potential.

All or None Principle

Neurons fire at 100% every time.

Excitatory effect

A neurotransmitter effect that makes it more likely that the receiving neuron will generate an action potential/fire.

Inhibitory effect

A neurotransmitter effect that makes it less likely that a receiving neuron will generate an action potential/fire.

Receptor cells

Specialized cells in every sensory system of the body that can turn other kinds of energy into action potentials (neural impulses) that the brain can process.

Sensory nerves

Carries information from the sense receptors to the spinal cord/brain.

Interneurons

Nerve cells in the spinal cord/brain responsible for processing information.

Motor nerves

Carries information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands; carries messages from the spinal cord/brain to other parts of the body.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; the brain is the location of most information processing, and the spinal cord is the main pathway to and from the brain.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The sensory and motor nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles; contains the motor nerves needed for the voluntary muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs.

Sympathetic division (arousing)

Arouses the body to deal with perceived threats; fight/flight response.

Parasympathetic division (calming)

Relaxes body.

Endocrine system

One of the body's two communication systems; a set of glands that produce hormones, chemical messengers that circulate in the blood.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that circulate in the blood; similar to neurotransmitters in that they are also messengers, but slower communication system with longer lasting effects.

Pituitary gland

The endocrine system's 'master gland'; in conjunction with an adjacent brain area, controls the other endocrine glands.

Hypothalamus

The brain region controlling the pituitary gland.

Case study

A research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Computed axial tomography (CT/CAT)

A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among substances.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among substances and tracks blood flow to determine what parts of the brain are more active.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp to help evaluate brain function.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A visual display of brain activity through the injection of radioactive glucose, revealing the brain's functioning.

Brainstem

Oldest part of the brain, central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

Located at the base of the brainstem, controls basic life-support functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling wakefulness and arousal, extending up and down the spinal cord.

Thalamus

Located on top of the brainstem, the brain's sensory switchboard that directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

Cerebellum

Attached to the rear of the brainstem, helps coordinate voluntary movement; if damaged, a person could perform basic movements but would lose fine motor skills.

Limbic system

At the border of the brainstem and cerebral cortex, helps regulate important functions like memory, fear, aggression, hunger, and thirst.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus that helps regulate many of the body's maintenance activities like eating, drinking, and body temperature, and is linked to emotion.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that wraps around the back of the thalamus, helping process new memories for permanent storage.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped neural cluster in the limbic system that controls emotional responses like fear and anger.

Cerebral cortex

The intricate of interconnected neurons that form the body's ultimate control and information processing center.

Cerebral cortex

Covers the brain's lower level structures.

Cerebral cortex

Contains about 300 billion nerve cells.

Cerebral cortex

Divided into 4 lobes.

Frontal lobes

Lies just behind the forehead and is involved in planning and judgement.

Frontal lobes

Includes the motor cortex.

Parietal lobes

Lying at the top of the head and toward the rear, behind the frontal lobes.

Parietal lobes

Includes the somatosensory cortex and general association areas used for processing information.

Parietal lobes

Designated as the association lobes.

Occipital lobes

Lying at the back of the head and includes the primary visual processing area of the brain.

Temporal lobes

Lying roughly above the ears and includes the auditory areas of the brain.

Motor cortex

A strip of brain tissue at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Motor cortex

Different parts of the cortex control different parts of the body.

Motor cortex

Motor cortex on the left hemisphere controls the right of the body, vice versa.

Somatosensory cortex

A strip of brain tissue at the front of the parietal lobes that registers/processes body sensations.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood by reorganizing after damage/experience.

Longitudinal fissure

The long crevice that divides the cerebral cortex into the left/right hemispheres.

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural tissue that connects the two brain hemispheres and allows them to communicate with each other.

Corpus callosum

Sometimes cut to prevent seizures.

Right hemisphere

Houses the brain's spatial abilities and allows us to perceive/organize things in a given space.

Broca's Area

Directs the muscle movements involving speech.

Broca's Aphasia

Words can be spoken properly, but grammar is incorrect, with lots of pausing.

Wernicke's Area

Involved in language comprehension and expression.

Fluent Aphasia (Wernicke's Aphasia)

Can say things quickly, but things don't actually make sense, like speaking gibberish.