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Jerusalem Toilet
568 BC
Two holes, bowl for tossing limes
found tapeworms and whipworms (undercooked meat, unsanitary conditions, using human feces for fertilizers), undigested grains from weeds
supports idea of siege as described in the Bible
Homo Naledi, Rising Star Cave
South Africa
2013: discovered by Lee Burger, excavated by Underground Astronauts (all women)
1500 bones, as old as 2.8 Ma
Bones were found way far back in cave = put there, intentional burial/afterlife/religion
also found possible carvings/art (would be the earliest), not confirmed
Laetoli Footpirnts
Tanzania
3.5-3.8 Ma
1978-1979: found my Mary Leakey
3 individuals (4’8, 4’8, and 4’0) walked across recently fallen ash over 70 yards
Most likely Australopithecus africanus, two walked ahead, one behind
Also found animal footprints
Lucy
Ethiopia
2.9 Ma
1974: Donald Johanson (chance discovery, just happened to go back a different way to camp and saw the bones)
20 years old, 4’, probably Australopithecus africanus
named after Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds (The Beatles)
Piltdown Man
Charles Dawson “discovered” fragments 1908-1915 (two skull pieces, jawbone, tooth)
Proven forgery in 1953, chemical analysis showed 600 year human skull and orangatang jawbone
Mount Carmel/Carmel Caves
Israel
Dorothy Garrod excavated in 1920s-1930s (first woman named professor at Cambridge)
Inhabited 500,000 to 20,000 years ago (before modern humans)
first evidence of homo sapiens and Neanderthals coexisting
five caves total
Lascaux Caves
France
15000 BC (middle)
1940: found by four kids and their dog Robot
650 feet long, 600 paintings, and 1500 engravings
never excavated floor, immediately opened for tourism which damaged paintings, now only model is open to the public
Altamira
Spain
12000 BC (youngest)
1868: found by land owner Don Marcelino, called a fraud, proven right after death
300 m long, polychrome ceiling
also had too many tourists, closed to public in 1979, opened and closed in 2002
also has replica, 5 people let in for 37 min weekly
Chauvet Cave
France
35000 BC (oldest)
1994: found by Jean-Marie Chauvet
8000 sq m, 4000 artifacts and animal bones, 13 species painted on walls
oldest cave painting in Europe
Closed! Also has a replica
Jericho
West Bank, Isreal/Palestine
7500 BC (pre-pottery Neolithic A), oasis
excavated on and off for 100 years
J Garstand (1876-1956): linked destruction to Battle of Jericho (Bible) and determined it was multi-leveled
Kathleen Kenyon (1906-1978)
brought in to look at pottery, wanted to dig more, dug for 10-20 years
Garstang’s Joshua’s Jericho was too old
found tower, 7500 BC (defensive, astronomy or **grain-storage**)
Foudn tombs or graves (multifamily, intramural, separate)
Jericho skulls: removed skull from body, plastered with mud and seashelled sockets, put in living rooms = ancestor worship?
Catalhoyuk
Turkey
6500-5600 BC (pre-pottery Neolithic B)
1958: found by James Mellaart (1925-2012) - faker
interconnected houses, no doors or windows → got in and out through ladders and roofs
Probably protection from predators, were obsessed with bulls
wall paintings, bull horn decoration
FAKE art of village and volcano, maybe all fake (found sketches), he did Hallucinate (Dorak Affair)
Ian Hodder: put a roof on it, found burials with ocher, grain bins, knives, bottle opener
Catalhoyuk female figures → mother goddess? queen?
Gobekli Tepe
Turkey
9600 BC
1993: looked at by Klaus Schidmt (German)
2007: actually excavated
carved stone circle structures (temple?), one of the oldest pre-pottery Neolithic
BEFORE DOMESTICATION: proof of settlement before domestication
Minoan Crete
2000 BC, seven palaces found so far
no fortification walls
Knossos
1st palace: 2000-1700 BC, destroyed by earthquakes
2nd palace: 1700-1300 BC, destroyed by Greeks
3rd palace: 1300-1100 BC, Mycenean, feel when Bronze Age ended
Also bull lovers, possibly came from Catalhoyuk(?), horns of consecration
no fortification walls, high tech engineering, running water, redistribution center (lots of storage jars, no money)
theories: island was ruled by family or women, strong navy
excavated by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900
reconstructed paintings badly (Priest King of three different people, dolphins, bull-leaping)
Atlantis
Santorini/Thera and Akrotiri
Volcano erupted in 1628 BC, middle of island disintegrated and water rushed in
Akrotiri was completely covered in ash, Pompeii of the Aegean
Remains showed as ash washed away, lots of wall paintings including ship captain’s blue monkeys
Spyridon Marinatos excavated and died there
Cape Gelidonya
Turkey
1200 BC
published by George Bass in 1967, was his first dive and dissertation
Originated from Canaan, had tools, weapons, oxhide ingots (pure copper), tin
probably belonged to a tinker
no one believed it was tin or from Canaan, Bass vowed to prove them wrong
Uluburun Shipwreck
Turkey
1330 BC
1982: oxhide ingot found by sponge diver on his first dive
excavated by Bass in 1984
Canaanite ship with fancy stuff, possibly gift between kings
330 oxhide ingots (and tin to fit 300 soldiers), raw glass, ivory (hippo and elephant)
14 stone anchors, big jars for storage, Canaanite, Mycenaean, and Italian swords (prob from crew), pottery for dating, gold chalice, 8 royal cups, wooden folded tablet
gold scarab with Nefertiti’s name (helped to date: name she used in first five years, had to leave after her rule in 1340 BC)
Olympia
Greece
original site of Olympics 776 BC to 393 AD
footraces, long jump, discus, chariots
winners got laurels and huge jars of olive oil, Nero was obsessed
discovered in 1766, excavated by French in 1829, by Germans in 1875-81, 1937-42, 1952-67, 1985-…
used Pausanias book to find it, buried under 20 feet of Earth from flooding
Temple of Zeus/Statue: 5th century BC (classic), colorful, 40 ft, gold and ivory, ancient wonder all gone
made by Pheidias (workshop nearby, “I belong to Pheidias” cup)
Lots of training facilities and housing facilities for athletes, delegates, and admin
stadium: earth embankment for stands, spears with armor engraved and dedicated to Zeus
Delphi
Greece
excavated in 1892-1903 by French (moved entire village)
Temple for Apollo: priestess/oracle was in basement with chasm ox noxious vapors and laurel drug leaves (she was hallucinating and losing it)
Required money to “translate” oracle’s prophecies, had treasuries for dedications to Apollo and oracle for different city-states
statues of Kleobis or Biton, Bronze Charioteer
Phythian Games, phythian = snakes (Apollo’s land)
Pella and Macedonia
1977-1978: Andronikos found tombs of Alexander the Great’s father (Phillip II), brother, maybe son
Sarcophagus of maybe Phillip II’s ashes, shin armor of two sizes (for Phillip), gold laurels
Rome
Pope Pius VII (sponsored first excavation), Victor Emmanuel II (also sponsored), Mussolini (also sponsored, used for a lot of his fascism stuff, fasces = Roman judges hold)
Romulus and Remus: sent down river, found Rome, Romulus kills Remus = foundation myth
structures: villas/houses of emperors, apartment buildings, dining halls/kitchens (communal spaces for social stuff), Roman Forum (spot for emperors to put stuff)
Engineering: all roads do lead to Rome, aqueducts, public baths
Res Gestae fragments: Augustus’s authobiography
Ara Pacis/Altar of Peace: finding pieces since 1568
built in 13 BC (1st century BC)
pumped in CO2 so water would stop flowing into site
put it together wrong the first time, had to disassemble and reassemble
dedicated to Augustus and the prosperity he brought to Rome
Megiddo
Jezreel Valley, Israel
at the crossroads, right in the middle of everything
34 battles fought there: Thutmose the Third, Napoleon, General Allenby, Crusaders, Romans, Greeks
Maybe where Armageddon will happen: Har Megiddo = mountain of Megiddo → Harmageddo → Armageddon
first excavated in 1903, has been excavated since then
110 feet tall, 20 layers over 5000 years: 5000 BC to Persian period
Stables of Solomon: maybe stables, definitely not Solomon’s (wrong time)
water tunnel: built to get water without leaving inside of city during siege
Seal from Shema, Servant of Jeroboam (missing)
Cartouche of Sheshonq: proved he conquered Megiddo, but Schumacher threw it into the back dirt (can’t find out which strata it’s from)
looked at by Edward Robinson, Conder and Kitchner, Schumacher, U of Chicago, Yadin, Tel Aviv Consortium
James Henry Breasted, John D. Rockefeller, Lord Edmund Allenby
Lord Allenby (the hero of the Battle of Megiddo in 1918) suggested to Breasted after WWI that he should excavate Megiddo to look for Solomon and Thutmose III. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. agreed to fund the first five years
Lewis Binford
processual archaeology
1931-2001
Ian Hodder
post-processual archaeology
1948-
also excavated Catalhoyuk
Lee Burger
discovered Homo naledi/Rising Star Cave
put together Underground Astronauts: small women archaeologists
Dorothy Garrod
1892-1968
Excavated Mt Carmel Caves
first woman to be named professor at Cambridge
Louis and Mary Leakey
1931-1959 and beyond, found skull and jaw via Dalmatian found Laetoli footprints
Richard Leakey
husband of Meave
found Turkana Boy (1.6 Ma, 7-15 at death)
wrote “origins”
Louise Leakey
daughter of Richard
youngest ever to find a hominid fossil at 6 years old
found 3.5 Ma with her mom, worked at Koobi Fora with GWU
J Garstang
1876-1956
linked destruction of Jericho to Bible (got wrong time), found it was multi-leveled
Kathleen Kenyon
1906-1978
brought in at Jericho for pottery but wanted to dig, dug for 10-20 years
proved what Garstang thought was Joshua’s Jericho was too old
found defense/astrology/grain tower (thought defense), tombs, and graves
James Mellaart
1925-2012
found Catalhoyuk
Faked art/volcano landscape (found sketches for art)
Dorak Affair: he maybe hallucinated a girl leading him to site and treasure
Sir Arthur Evans
self-financed excavations and books (riches to rage) 1899-1900
found Knossos from people selling milk stones and tracing it to the site
named Minoans after King Minos (labyrinth)
Reconstructed as he excavated BAD (red pillars, dolphins, priest-king)
George Bass
the father of underwater archaeology
excavated Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya
Founded Institute of Underwater Archaeology, taught for awhile
Pheidias
built statue and temple of Zeus
Androkinos
found tombs at Pella and Macedonia
Pope Pius VII
excavated Rome 1800-1823
Victor Emmanuel II
excavated Rome 1849-1861
Mussolini
excavated Rome 1922-1943
Ara Pacis
Edward Robinson
Megiddo, 1838 and 1852, couldn’t find it because he was standing on it
Lieutenants Conder and Kitchener
British “surveyors,” first to identify Megiddo
Gottlieb Schumacher
from Ohio, worked with Germans, dug poorly like Schliemann
U of Chicago: lead by Breasted, used local workers and quftis, innovative (aerial photography via balloons, Munsell color chart, put everything into code)
horizontally excavated first 3 layers until they ran out of money, then vertical down to bedrock
sold site to the state of Israel for $1
Yigael Yadin
60s and 70s
used Megiddo to train grad students
no published studies
Ancient Diet
objective of archaeology: establish how people obtained their food but also to reconstruct their actual diet
we use: environmental data, animal bones (faunal remains), plants remains (floral remains), human bones, feces (coprolites), artifacts, rock art
Zooarchaeology
study of animal bones found in the archaeological records, specialized expertise that requires a background in paleontology/zoology
number of identified specimen = number of bones for one species
minimum number of individuals = number of individuals to account for bones
pollen analysis/palynology
way to study ancient environments and human impacts on vegetation
begins in field with floating or sifting, botanists collect samples and examine
count grains per species and what strata they were found in
long-term and short- term climate change
via pollen
Kaniewski discovered plants got more arid = 300 year drought
collapse of Bronze Age
Low, Middle, and High Ranges of Archaeology
observations from fieldwork vs general, overarching theories or strategies (middle gets knowledge needed to relate archaeological facts to general behavior theories)
Processual Archaeology
60s and 70s
Lew Binford: scientific/anthropology-based
figure out the how and why
went to far: tried to come up with universal laws, hard sciences, unbiased/objective
Post-processual Archaeology
Ian Hodder
the post-processual critique rejects cultural evolutionary generalizations
the post-processual critique rejects the processual search for universal laws
the post-processual critique rejects explicitly scientific methods
the post-processual critique rejects the processual emphasis on objectivity and ethical neutrality
U of Arizona Garbage Project: garbologists
goal: to reconstruct where the garbage came from and the way of life, and test the validity of interview and survey techniques
conclusion: people lie about what they do (ie alcohol usage), determined family income
methodological objective: how material remains relate to behavior that produced them
substantive objective: workable explanations of specific and recurrent patterns observed in the archaeological record
Experimental Archaeology
studying the archaeological process through experimental reconstruction of earlier conditions, the origins of this approach can be traced back to Saxton Pope, a surgeon at Uni and California Medical Center (San Francisco)
Agricultural Theories
started by gathered (women), garbage heaps/restrooms grew seeds on accident, bag of seeds fell out to make a path
agriculture or settlements first? (Gobekli Tepe = settlement first)
Underwater Archaeology
worry about pressue and decompression sickness
have to swipe one way to clear stuff, can’t wear shoes
invented glue to transport falling-apart ignots
harder to transport stuff: needed to vacuum to get rid of sand and had to heave things up