Semester 2 MIDTERM Review

Behavioral Genetics

Study of how genetics and environment both contribute to individual variations in human behavior (with a key idea being that genes do not cause behavior, but may create predispositions toward certain behaviors)

genetic inheritance

The process of transmitting genes from the parents to their offspring; 23 chromosomes come from an individual's mother and another 23 come from their father

gene-environment interaction (G x E)

The phenomenon where an individual's genetic makeup influences their responsiveness to environmental factors. This means that the effects of environmental exposures on traits, diseases or disorders can vary significantly depending on an individual's genetic predisposition.

traits

Characteristics that are inherited, from parent to offspring

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental influences (factors beyond genes) alter gene expression (and their behavioral effects) without actually changing the DNA of the gene

gene expression

A complex chemical reaction to environmental or physiological changes that allow a gene to be activated and affect behavior

genes

Portions of DNA sequences that direct protein synthesis and produce cell structures (this is one aspect of how we get behavior, but these cannot affect behavior UNLESS they are expressed)

Diathesis-stress model

Suggests that a person may be genetically predisposed for a psychological disorder (or, more broadly, a behavior) that remains unexpressed until triggered by stressors from the environment

allele

One of a number of different forms of a gene

genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations

5-HTT serotonin transporter gene

This gene plays a significant role in regulating serotonin levels in the brain, impacting mood, anxiety, and overall emotional well-being. Variations in the gene, particularly the presence of short (s) and long (l) alleles, have been associated with different sensitivities to stress and a predisposition to mood disorders such as depression and anxiety.

kinship studies

Researchers assess genetic hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble each other on a specific trait

genetic similarity

The measure of the proportion of alleles shared by two populations; research psychologists use twin studies, family studies (kinship studies), and adoption studies to help determine this

correlation

Statistical relationship between two variables; scientists use this approach with genetics because it is unethical to alter genes in humans in order to study the effects

Mere Exposure Effect

Attraction increases with familiarity and frequency

Cultural Psychology

Argues that culture affects whom we find attractive and how we form relationships

Passionate Love

Making this the foundation of a long-term relationship is primarily a Western phenomenon.

Arranged Marriages

Emphasize learning to love one's spouse over time.

Similarity-Attraction Model

Attraction is stronger towards individuals who are more like our self than unlike our self.

attachment

Affection, fondness, or sympathy for someone or something; being bonded to someone

Internal Working Model

Schema formed from primary attachment relationships (such as a mother or caregiver) that may influence future attachments.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Attachment patterns tend to be replicated in future relationships

Halo Effect

Positive impressions in one area influence others (example: in relationships, a person's beauty positively influences our judgment of other, unrelated qualities)

Evolutionary Psychology

Assumes behavior is genetically inherited, motivated by survival and the desire to pass down one's own genes

Natural Selection

Members of a species who have characteristics better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce - thus, passing on these beneficial traits to the next generation

Adaptations

Characteristics developed over many generations, through natural selection, that make a species more competitive in its environment, increasing its chances of survival

Pheromones

Chemicals released into the environment that affect behavior in the same species.

primer pheromones

Cause long-term physiological changes in animals

signaling pheromones

Cause rapid behavioral responses, like mating

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A group of genes that enable immune system pathogen recognition.

MHC and attraction

Greater diversity of MHC types strengthens a child's immune system due to increased recognition of more pathogens. Therefore, if humans were able to detect MHC types, potential mates with a different type would be more attractive

human pheromones

It is debated whether these exist, and whether the ability to sense or smell MHC "type" (if that ability exists) would be considered an example of one

hormones

Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream by glands of the endrocrine system

Hormonal Effects

Longer-lasting than neurotransmitters but only affect target cells, and are slower to take effect

Testosterone

While associated with higher levels of aggression and male-male competition, this hormone can also promote prosocial behaviors and efforts to increase one's social standing

Oxytocin

A hormone that promotes love, trust, and social bonding, along with calming effects. Also plays a key role in mother-child attachment.

Cortisol

Stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex, although it also helps maintain constant blood pressure and blood sugar levels, and helps to reduce inflammation

neurons

Nerve cells - the basic building block of the nervous system; there are about 86 billion of them in the human brain alone

neurotransmission

The process of transferring information from one neuron to another at a synapse by use of chemical messages and electrical signals

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon (which is the long threadlike part of a neuron along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells)

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that (when released from vesicles), cross the synaptic gaps between neurons, transmitting information from one neuron to the next

examples of neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, GABA, Glutamate

synapse

The junction gap between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron

presynaptic neuron

Neuron that sends the signal

postsynaptic neuron

Neuron that receives the signal

excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential (by binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron), promoting communication between nerve cells (key examples include glutamate, acetylcholine, serotonin and dopamine)

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that reduce the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential (by linking to ion channels that allow negatively charged ions to enter the cell), thereby decreasing neural activity (key examples include GABA and glycine)

dopamine

An excitatory neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning, and the brain's pleasure and reward system

serotonin

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply is linked to depression.

agonists

Molecules that bind to a receptor and activate a response (increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell accordingly)

endogenous

Growing or originating from within an organism (Example: Neurotransmitters, Hormones, etc.)

endogenous agonists

Neurotransmitters - because they are biologically already part of the nervous system and they bind to their matching receptor sites (Example: Acetylcholine attaches to ACh receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron)

antagonists

Molecules that bind to a receptor but do not activate it; instead, they block the binding of agonists and prevent the receptor from being activated (Example: Scopolamine blocks acetylcholine receptor sites)

exogenous

Something that comes from an external source, not from within the body or cell (Example: Medicine or drugs)

reuptake

Process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the synaptic vesicles of a neuron

examples of hormones

Cortisol, Oxytocin, Testosterone, Melatonin

endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

internal attribution

Dispositional: A person’s traits, personality or abilities are seen as the cause of their behavior (seen as intentional or within their control)

external attribution

Situational: A person’s environment, luck / timing, or the actions of other people are seen as the cause of their behavior (seen as accidental / unintentional and outside of their control)

Actor-Observer Bias

People often attribute their own actions to external, situational factors while attributing others’ actions to internal, dispositional factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the role of internal (dispositional) factors while explaining other people’s behavior, and underestimating the role of external (situational) factors

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal (dispositional) factors and one’s failures to external (situational) factors

Relationship-enhancing pattern of communication

Attributing their partner’s successes to internal (dispositional) factors and their failures to external (situational) factors

Distress-maintaining pattern of communication

Attributing their partner’s successes to external (situational) factors and their failures to internal (dispositional) factors

Prospective study

Observational (researchers observe and collect data without intervening or manipulating the participants) and longitudinal (follows participants over an extended period to track changes over time)

disclosure

The process of sharing information, thoughts or feelings with other people

Social Penetration Theory

Altman and Taylor argue there are 4 different levels of disclosure that proceed through stages: Orientation (small talk, simple information, low risk), Exploratory (reveal some opinions and feelings, but still relatively safe), Affective (beginning to share private / personal information with increasing vulnerability and intimacy), and Stable (strong trust; can share openly and honestly)

bidirectional ambiguity

When there are correlations, but we cannot clearly determine which variable is causing the other (Example: Does a good relationship lead to more disclosure, or does more disclosure lead to a better relationship?)

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Gottman’s research on couples identifies communication patterns that can threaten a relationship: criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling (and he later added belligerence)

contempt

Attacking your partner’s character with insult or abuse; treating them as inferior

stonewalling

Withdrawing from the relationship to avoid conflict

switchtracking

A conversational derailment when one person switches the topic of the conversation to avoid conflict, discomfort or perceive blame

Diffuse Physiological Arousal (flooding)

Becoming overly aroused with strong emotions, which triggers our fight or flight response to a perceived threat, with a rapid heartbeat, shallow breath, possibly sweaty palms, possibly with yelling or stonewalling as part of the response. This makes active listening and calm conversation all but impossible until we have calmed down.

Social Exchange Theory

Argues that human interactions (including relationships) are transactions that aim to maximize one's benefits and minimize one's costs; when the costs become too great relative to the benefits for a partner, they may end the relationship

Equity Theory

Suggests individuals are most satisfied when they perceive a fair exchange of benefits and costs within the relationship (both partners feel they are receiving what they deserve based on what they contribute). A perceived imbalance may lead to dissatisfaction. Under-benefiting (getting less than one deserves) can lead to anger and resentment, while over-benefiting (getting more than one deserves) can lead to guilt and discomfort.

infidelity

Equity Theory suggests cheating may be a way for an under-benefitted partner (putting more into the relationship than their partner and getting less out of it) to restore equity because by cheating, the partner now “owes” the other one loyalty due to the cheating; however, evolutionary psychologists argue for biological origins (men have a drive to procreate and can do so rather easily while women have only one egg a month and must be pickier about whom they mate with)

Rusbult’s Investment Model

Argues that commitment is the most important factor in maintaining relationships, but that this is based on a formula of level of satisfaction + investments in the relationship minus alternatives (who is realistically available that would offer a better situation?)

Fatal Attraction Theory

Argues that what initially attracted us to our partner may eventually be the reason the relationship ends. Felmlee found 3 common patterns: Fun to foolish; Strong to domineering; Spontaneous to unpredictable.

Sampling bias

Regarding relationships, the majority of studies come from 3 populations that introduce biases: college students (difficult to generalize to other age groups), individualistic cultures (influencing attribution style and more), couples who have sought out therapy to save a troubled marriage (those who do not seek therapy are underrepresented)

Peak-end rule

When a relationship is in danger, memory distortion may occur that focuses on very bad events and the most recent behavior (which tends to be negative), rather than the whole of the relationship

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Surface Culture

The part of culture that can be seen: Language, clothing, food, customs, religious practices, and art.

Shallow Culture

Unspoken rules around everyday social interactions and norms (courtesy, attitudes toward elders, eye contact, personal space, etc.)

Deep Culture

Unconscious assumptions, knowledge and values that govern our world view and shape how we learn new information. Includes cosmology (what is good and evil) and mental models (schema) that help the brain interpret potential threats and rewards in its environment

cultural groups

Characterized by different norms, values and conventions

cultural norms

Ways of behaving that are considered normal in that culture, but which make the culture distinctive in its patterns of behavior

Enculturation

The process of adopting or internalizing the schemas of your original culture; this can occur through direct tuition (your parents, peers or teachers tell you what you are supposed to do), through observational learning, and participatory learning

Acculturation

The process by which someone comes into contact with another culture and begins to adopt the norms and behaviors of that culture

acculturative stress

A tension that results from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to match the ways of their new majority culture, while also honoring one's heritage culture. We are social animals who have a need to belong, so feeling like one is not part of a group can produce this.

acculturation strategies

As described in Berry’s Acculturation Model, they are: Assimilation, Integration, Separation, Marginalization

assimilation

When an individual abandons their original culture and adopts the cultural behaviors and values of their new culture

integration

When there is an interest in adopting the behaviors and values of the new culture, while still maintaining the original culture

separation

When migrants maintain their own culture and minimize contact with the new culture

marginalization

When it is not really possible to maintain one's original culture, but because of exclusion or discrimination, it is not possible to assimilate into the new culture

etic

A deductive approach to Psychology that: plans out research question before arriving in the field; assumes that behaviors are universal, as it applies its research findings globally; uses standardized tests and theories from their own culture and applies them to the local people; and that begins gathering data as soon as they arrive in the field

emic

An inductive approach to the study of culture that looks at behaviors that are culturally specific. The researchers: first immerse themselves in the culture they want to study; develop the research question after spending time with the local community; applies their findings to the local community under study (not globally); develops tests in consultation with local experts to apply to the community; collects data (and forms theories) only after they are familiar with the local culture.

Cultural Dimensions

Developed by Hofstede, it is a framework of cross-cultural psychology that shows the effect of a culture’s values on behavior and cognition across six different aspects (scored from 0-100, using factor analysis)

factor analysis

A statistical method that aims to reduce a large number of variables into a smaller set, making it easier to understand and interpret complex relationships; these are not directly observed but inferred from the patterns of correlation among the observed variables

Power Distance Index

A cultural dimension that measures to what extent less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. High score: More likely to accept hierarchy, with clear lines of authority and deference to those in power. Low score: Power more evenly distributed and individuals are less likely to accept authority without question. 

individualism

A cultural dimension that measures how far a society emphasizes personal achievement, independence, and individual rights, with loose ties between individuals and a focus on personal needs and those of the immediate family. Self-image = “I.”