Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottomans, Islamic Heartlands and Qing China - Vocabulary

Janissaries

enslaved boys from conquered Christian territories who were educated, converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers to serve the Sultan

Ayan

referred to a variety of elites, particularly landed notables in either cities or the countryside that emerged in the early decades of Abbasid rule

Sultan Selim III

first to institute Ottoman reforms to modernize the army and navy (the Ulamas and Janissaries ended up overthrowing him); attempted to set up new administrative structures alongside traditional institutions as a means of enhancing and centralizing state power

Ulama

Muslim scholars trained in Islam and Islamic law who interpret Islam's sciences, doctrines, and laws; their goal is to maintain the spiritual and intellectual history of the Islamic community

Wahhabis

member of a religion that believes in the purification of Islam, rejects Islamic theology and philosophy developed after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, and calls for strict adherence to the letter of the Koran and hadith; the predominant religious force in Saudi Arabia.

Sultan Mahmud II

Ottoman sultan; built a private, professional army; fomented revolution of Janissaries and crushed them with his private army; destroyed power of Janissaries and their religious allies; initiated Tanzimat reforms in Ottoman Empire, which were carried out by his sons

Young Turks (Ottoman Society for Union and Progress)

political reform movement in the early 20th century, favoring the replacement of the absolute monarchy of the Ottoman Empire with a constitutional monarchy

The Tanzimat Reforms

a set of western-style reforms in the Ottoman Empire set to revise Ottoman law to help lift the capitulations put on the Ottomans by European powers: included a European-influenced constitution in 1876, universities, state postal system, railways, and extensive legal reforms

Sultan Abdul Hamid

Ottoman ruler, who proclaimed a new constitution in 1876, but later showed his true intentions when he threw away the Constitution and disbanded the Parliament (instead wanted to return to despotic absolutism); he then nullified the constitution and restricted civil liberties; eventually overthrown in a coup

Fez

a brimless felt cap in the shape of a truncated cone, usually red with a black tassel; preferred headwear for Christians and Muslims in the Balkans

Turkification

a term given to policies and attitudes that emphasize Turkish population uniformity, Turkish culture, and Turkish language, promoted by the Young Turks, Kemalists, and later nationalists

Congress of Berlin

In 1878, representatives from Germany, Russia, Hungary, Britain, France, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire assembled a meeting to reorganise the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War; later leading to greater nationalism

Russo-Turkish War

began because of a rise in nationalism in the Balkans as well as the Russians wanting to recover the territorial losses it had suffered during the Crimean War, reestablishing itself in the Black Sea, and following the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire.

Mural

a large painting applied directly to a wall or ceiling surface

Mamluks

Turkish slave soldiers that won political control of several Muslim states during the Middle Ages (defeated the Mongols in 1260 and halted Mongol advances); generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517

Muhammad Ali

Albanian Ottoman military commander sent to recover Egypt from French occupation under Napoleon; capitalizing on the disorder in Egypt he founded the Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan in 1805 (with his decendents ruling until 1914); known as the father of modern Egypt

Khedive

the title of the Turkish viceroys in Egypt from 1867 to 1914

Suez Canal

opened in 1869 built to link the Mediterranean and Red seas; British later occupied Egypt to safeguard their financial and strategic interests

Muhammad Abduh

Disciple of al-Afghani; Muslim thinker in Egypt during the late 19th century; stressed the need for adoption of Western scientific learning and technology and the importance of rational inquiry within Islam

Ahmad Orabi

student of Muhammad Abduh; led a revolt in 1882 against the Egyptian government and Turkish influence in Egyptian army; defeated when the khedive called in the British army for support

Khartoum

river town that was administrative center of Egyptian authority in Sudan

Muhammad Ahmad

head of a Sudanic Sufi brotherhood; claimed descent from prophet Muhammad; proclaimed both British and Egyptians as infidels; launched revolt to purge Islam of impurities; took Khartoum in 1883; claimed himself as the Mahdi

Mahdi

the long-awaited Muslim savior of the faith

Khalifa Abdallahi

Successor of Muhammad Ahmad as leader of Mahdists in Sudan; established state in Sudan; defeated by British General Kitchener in 1898

Qing Dynasty

the last imperial dynasty of China (ruled by the Manchu people) which was overthrown by revolutionaries in 1912; began to isolate themselves from Western culture

Sinification

process by which non-Chinese societies (specifically Korea, Japan, and Vietnam) come under the influence of Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, culture, and ethnic identity of the Han people—the largest ethnic group of China

Empress Cixi

dowager empress who encouraged and promoted the Boxer rebellion; brought a medieval empire into the modern age (banning foot-binding, reforming the legal code and the education system, and outlawing certain barbaric punishments)

Compradors

wealthy group of Chinese merchants under the Qing dynasty; specialized in the import-export trade on China's south coast; one of the major links between China and the outside world engaged

Lin Zexu

Chinese official charged with stopping the opium trade in southern China; ordered blockade of European trading areas in Canton and confiscation of opium; sent into exile following the Opium War

Opium War

Britain wanted to expand its imperial power and sell more goods, especially the opium whose import the Chinese tried to ban (because it had led to widespread addiction in China and was causing serious social and economic disruption), while the British sold or smuggled in anyway

Treaty of Nanjing

an unequal treaty between Great Britain and China resulting from the Opium War. The treaty stated that China was to reimburse Britain for costs incurred fighting the war. The Chinese were forced to open 5 ports to British trade, provide Britain with complete control of Hong Kong, and grant extraterritoriality to British citizens living in China

Extraterritoriality

foreign residents in a country living under the laws of their native country, disregarding the laws of the host country

Hong Xiuquan

Chinese religious leader who sparked the Taiping Uprising and won millions to his unique form of Christianity, according to which he himself was the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a "heavenly kingdom of great peace" on earth

Taiping Rebellion

a revolt by the people of China against the Qing Dynasty because of their failure to deal effectively with the opium problem and the interference of foreigners

Boxer Rebellion

a movement driven by a secret society determined to drive out the foreigners they believed to be destroying their nation. Despite the eventual backing of the Chinese government, the movement was failure. The combined international response that it drew served only to emphasize China's weakness and contributed to the downfall of the imperial government

Spheres of Influence

areas in which countries have some political and economic control but do not govern directly

Economic Imperialism

an independent but less developed nation controlled by private business interests (companies) rather than other governments

Open Door Policy

Issued by U.S. secretary of state John Hay, the policy reaffirmed the principle that all countries should have equal access to any Chinese port open to trade

Self-Strengthening Movement

a movement launched to protect the structure of the existing Qing Dynasty. The priority was that the Qing could survive any foreign threats with the help of newly introduced technology and ideology from the West

Chinese Exclusion Act

a law from 1882-1892 that barred Chinese laborers from entering the United States, however allowed merchants, teachers, students, travelers, and diplomats, as long as they obtained certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to immigrate

Puyi

the last emperor of Qing China; controlled the throne at 3, during Japanese occupation became Emperor of the puppet-state, Manchuria.

Sun Yat-Sen

father of modern China; responsible for overthrowing Qing dynasty and ending conservative monarchy of 200 years; founded China's first republic; and developed the 3 principles of the people to try and improve China (nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people)