Memory (Unit 2: Cognition) - AP Psychology

encoding

getting information into memory

automatic encoding

requires no effort or conscious awareness to process information

effortful encoding

requires work and attention to process information

levels (depth) of processing

the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered

structural encoding

shallow processing of information, primarily focusing on the physical characteristics of a stimulus, like its appearance or structure

phonemic encoding

the process of encoding information based on its sound

semantic encoding

the process of encoding information by focusing on its meaning, rather than its physical characteristics or appearance

elaborative rehearsal

a memory technique that involves actively relating new information to existing knowledge and experiences, leading to deeper processing and improved recall

imagery

attaching images to information makes it easier to remember

dual encoding

the process of storing information in memory by using both visual and verbal representations

chunking

break information into smaller units to aid in memory

mnemonics

shortcuts to help us remember information easier

acronyms

using letters to remember something

method of loci

using locations to remember a list of items in order

context dependent memory

where you learn the information you best remember the information

state dependent memory

the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing

mood congruent memory

remember happy events when happy, sad events when sad

forgetting curve

recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten

distributed practice/spacing effect

review a little every day/night (resets forgetting curve)

massed practice

cramming in a short amount of time

testing effect

the phenomenon where retrieving information from memory, through activities like testing or practice quizzes, significantly enhances long-term retention and learning compared to simply rereading or reviewing material

storage

retaining information over time

multi-store model

a theory that proposes three distinct memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

sensory memory

the brief storage of sensory information. It's the very first step in our memory system, holding information from our senses (sight, sound, touch, smell, taste) for a split second

iconic memory

visual memory, lasts ~0.3 seconds

echoic memory

auditory memory, lasts ~2-3 seconds

short term memory

information passes from sensory memory to short term memory, lasts ~30 seconds and can remember ~ 7 ± 2 items

maintenance rehearsal

a memory strategy that involves repeating information to keep it in short-term memory for a longer duration

long term memory

the storage of information for an extended period, potentially lasting for years or even a lifetime

explicit memory

long-term memories that are consciously recalled or explained; type of memory where you can actively recall and state specific facts, events, or experiences

episodic memory

one form of long-term memory that corresponds to life events and personal facts (EVENTS)

semantic memory

a type of long-term memory that stores factual knowledge, concepts, and general information about the world (FACTS)

implicit memory

the unconscious recollection of information, skills, or events, often without conscious awareness (automatic, no effort needed)

priming

information that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on

procedural

the ability to perform actions and skills, often without conscious awareness

working memory model

splits short term memory into 2—visual spatial memory (from iconic memory) and phonological look (from echoic memory); a “central executive” puts it together before passing it to long term memory

prospective memory

the ability to remember to perform a planned action or intention at some future point in time

autobiographical memory

memory for your own personal history—combination of episodic and semantic

superior autobiographical

rare condition; individuals can remember everything about themselves in extreme detail

hierarchies

organizing information into a multilevel classification system, where concepts are grouped from broad to specific

categorically

understanding different types of memory systems and their functions

tip of the tongue phenomenon

can’t remember the name of something because you’re stuck elsewhere in your semantic network

schemas

frameworks that organize information

assimilation

incorporate new information into existing schema (cat is dog because both have four legs)

accommodation

adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information (cat and dogs are different animals)

what neurons in the hippocampus are used for episodic and semantic memory?

acetylcholine

why are memories before age three are unreliable?

infantile amnesia, hippocampus still forming

what is the cerebellum used for in memories?

implicit/procedural memories

what is the amygdala used for in memories?

emotional memories

what is the frontal lobe used for in memories?

encoding and retrieval

long term potentiation

neural basis of memory—connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)

memory consolidation

memories are strengthened and made more stable with time

retrieval

taking information out of storage

serial position effect

tendency to and remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best

why does the primacy effect occur?

information gets moved to long term memory

why does the recency effect occur?

information gets moved to the short term memory

recall

retrieving information from memory without the aid of external cues or prompts

recognition

the ability to identify something as familiar or previously encountered

repressed memories

unconsciously buried memories to defend the ego (psychodynamic approach)

encoding failure

forgot information because it was never encoded (no attention in the first place)

proactive interference

old information blocks new information

P roactive interference
O ld information blocks new information
R retroactive interference
N ew information blocks old information

retroactive interference

new information blocks old information

P reactive interference

O ld information blocks new information

R retroactive interference

N ew information blocks old information

constructive memory

the way we update memories with new memories, associations, feelings—memory is unreliable

source amnesia

forgot who told you/where you heard it

misinformation effect

distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation

framing

the way a question is asked impacts how information is recalled/perceived (how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?)

imagination inflation

people are more confident an event happened after imagining it (even though it did not happen)

anterograde amnesia

amnesia moves forward (forget new information)

retrograde amnesia

amensia moves backwards (forget old information)