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what are free nerve endings used for
pain
what are enclosed nerve endings surrounded by layers of connective tissue used for
found on skin, creates graded response and sensitivity on larger regions
what are specialized receptors used for
sense organs, increase sensitivity
chemoreceptor
chemicals (PH, ATP, O2, Co2)
mechanoreceptor
mechanical (touch)
photoreceptor
photons (light)
thermoreceptor
cold and heat
nocireceptor
pain
what are proprioceptors used for
movement, sense of body position, fine motor control
where can you find proprioceptors
muscle spindles, joint receptors, golgi tendon organs
what are cutaneous receptors used for
touch, pressure, heat and cold, pain
special senses
sight, hearing, equilibrium, taste, smell
exteroceptors
respond to external stimuli, (sight, hearing)
interoceptors
respond to internal stimuli, (organs, tissues, mechanical and chemical)
how is a stimulus transduced into an electrical signal
signal transduction pathway, ion channel opens, change in membrane potential, signal to integrating center
what does graded potential determine
stimulus intensity and amount of action potential
where is electrical signal generated
receptor
what does receptor potential determine
stimulus intensity
what is frequency of action potentials proportional to
stimulus intensity
how high will the receptor potential be if the stimulus is long and stronger than average
higher than average
where does the receptor potential take place
transduction site
where is the receptor potential integrated
trigger zone
where does action potentials take place
between the myelinated axon
phasic receptor
fast-adapting mechanoreceptor (putting on a watch)
tonic receptors
slow adapting (smell)
meissners corpuscle function
sensing changes in texture (braille)
where is the meissners corpuscle found
just below layer of skin
ruffini endings function
skin stretch
free nerve ending funtcion
temperature, pain, touch
pacinain corpuscles function
sensing deep pressure
what has sensitive but dense receptive fields
hands, face, lips
what is lateral inhibition
disables spreading of action potential from excited neurons in the lateral direction (allows vision and sound to focus)
what has a less dense receptive field
thighs, forearm
what does it mean to have a small and dense receptive field
you can discriminate 2 points separately when they are closer together
where does fine touch pathway happen
dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (synapses in medulla)
where does the coarse touch pathway happen
spinothalamic tact (synapses in spinal cord)
does the fine touch go to the opposite side of the brain (contralateral)
yes
does the coarse touch go to the opposite side of the brain (contralateral)
no
functions of endocrine system
regulate development, growth, metabolism, maintain homeostasis, control digestive processes, control reproductive activity
major glands of endocrine system
pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland
what is a endocrine gland
organ/tissue/cells that produce and secrete substance into the blood
what is a hormone
molecule secreted into the blood
what is a target organ
cells that have specific receptors for hormone
what is a receptor
proteins located on plasma membrane or within cell of target organ/tissue
what is a hormonal stimulation
release of a hormone is triggered by the release of another hormone
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) function
stimulates release of thyroid hormone from thyroid
what is a humeral stimulation
changes in blood level of nutrient or an ion trigger release of the hormone
what releases TSH
anterior pituitary
what triggers the release of insulin from pancreas
high blood glucose
what triggers release of glucagon from pancreas
low blood glucose
what organ is associated with humeral stimulation
pancreas
what is nervous system stimulation
simulation of the nervous system triggers the release of a hormone
what is an example of nervous system stimulation
sympathetic stimulation of adrenal medulla (leads to fight or flight)
what reflex mechanism is the adrenal medulla associated with
nerual
what do steroids hormones do
enter cell to bind to target tissue receptor
what kind of hormone is lipid-soluble and formed by cholesterol
steroid hormone
what are some examples of a steroid hormone
estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone
what hormone is water-soluble and derives from amino acids
biogenic amines
what do biogenic amines do
bind to receptor on cell membrane
biogenic amine examples
norepinephrine, epinephrine, thyroid hormone
what is a water-soluble amino acid
protein/glycoprotein
what is the most common type of hormone
proteins/glycoprotein
protein examples
antidiuretic hormone, insulin, glucagon, growth hormone
how are lipid-soluble hormones transported in blood
carrier molecule, loss in urine
what releases hormones
endocrine gland, directly into blood concentrations of hormone
how hormones are eliminated
degradation in liver, excretion in urine by kidneys, uptake by target cells
what organ are water-soluble carrier-proteins produced
liver
which classification of hormones does not require a carrier protein
water-soluble
what do water-soluble hormones do?
activate anabolic pathways, release cellular secretions, change membrane permeability, simulate muscle contractions
what hormone changes membrane permeability
epinephrine (opens Ca channels in heart)
what hormone stimulates muscle contractions
oxytocin
what hormones acts through second messenger systems
water-soluble
what is the first messenger in the 3 common messenger system
hormones
steps of 3 common messenger system
hormone binds to receptor, binding of receptor activates receptor, activated receptor triggers downstream response which amplifies first messenger signaling
what organ degrades hormones
liver
what is up-regulating
increase sensitivity
what is down-regulation
reduce sensitivity
what is the downstream effector of TSH
thyroid
what is the downstream effector of ACTH
adrenal gland
what is the downstream effector of FSH and Lh
testes and ovaries
what is the downstream effector of growth hormones
bones, muscle, adipose tissue, liver
what is the downstream effectors of prolactin
mammary gland
what nuclei controls release and production of oxytocin
paraventricular nucleus
what nuclei controls production and release of ADH
supraoptic nucleus
what part of the pituitary gland contain neural tissue
posterior pituitary
what does the posterior pituitary release
oxytocin and ADH
where are the releasing hormones produced
hypothalamus
which cell in the thyroid gland are the most numerous
follicular cells
what does the parathyroid gland do
regulates blood calcium
what are the effectors of parathyroid hormone
kidney and bone
GH and IGF act through negative feedback to regulate activity of what organs
hypothalamus
how often does the adrenal gland release epinephrine vs norepinephrine
epi 90 norepi 10
what are the functions of epinephrine and norepinephrine
increase heart rate and contraction, breaks down glycogen
zona glomersula
mineral coritcoids
zona fasiculata
glucorcorticoids
zona reticularis
sex steroids
what hormones does the anterior pituitary integrate
ACTH, epinephrine, norepinephrine
what endocrine gland helps regulate blood calcium
parathyroid
function of a-cells
glucagon 40%
function of b cells
insulin 50%
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