UARK ANATOMY EXAM 1 ch.1-7 (Brian Becker)

Anatomy

the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.

- Study of external and internal structures

- Naming parts / how they fit together

- Anatomy dictates physiology

- Specific Anatomical Structures have specific Physiological Functions

Herophilus

First scientist to publicly dissect human bodies, "father of anatomy" (335-255bc)

Andreas Vesalius

a Flemish surgeon who is considered the father of modern anatomy { he pioneered the study of anatomy and provided detailed overviews of the human body and its systems.} (1514-1564)

what are the 5 main reasons to study anatomy?

Professional careers, personal health, foreign investigations (ex. autopsies and archeology), evolutionary relationships(evolution adn ecology), It's Interesting!

Physiology

the study of how the body and its parts work or function

- involves homeostatic mechanisms

homeostatic mechanisms

self-regulating systems that monitor aspects of the internal environment and how body reacts to changes in conditions & tries to correct, or go back to some range of baseline values.

ex.regulation of body temperature (to cold outside for body so blood vessels constrict to save warmth), and the balance between acidity and alkalinity (when you eat too much salt you sweat or pee it out)

what dictates physiology

Anatomy!

Pathology

study of disease

What is the primary structure of a protein?

sequence of amino acids

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

alpha helix (twist) or beta pleated sheet

What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

a polypeptide (single subunit of a transthyretin)

what is the main cause/ reason why a cell, organelle, or body unit functions the way it does?

its Shape/ structure!

why are red blood cells shaped the way they are?

because the fibres of normal Red blood cells are full of individual hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen and need to pass through the bloodstream to other parts of the body. Red blood cells do not have nuclei, allowing for more room for hemoglobin. The shape of red blood cells is a unique concave shape (round with a flat, indented center). Their lack of nuclei makes them so flexible that they can pass through extremely small blood vessels.

what happens when the fibers of hemoglobin in a red blood cell are abnormal?

the red blood cell will be deformed into a sickle shape (causing sickle cell disease) meaning these effected red blood cell will not be able to move through the blood vessels as freely (or clot words as well) as ones with normal hemoglobin fibers because structure=function

Microscopic Anatomy

deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye like cells and molecules

ex: cytology: study of cells

ex: Histology: study of tissue

cytology

study of cells

Histology

study of tissues

Gross Anatomy

also known as Macroscopic anatomy. Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye.

involves surface anatomy, clinical anatomy, and Surgical anatomy.

surface anatomy

superficial anatomical markings & relationship to deeper structures (basically the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface)

clinical anatomy

focuses on anatomical features that may undergo recognizable pathological changes during illness

surgical anatomy

studies anatomical landmarks important for surgical procedures

Anatomical landmarks

Structures that can be felt or palpated(examine a part of the body by touch, especially for medical purposes.) (ex: homologous structures, anatomical positions)

Developmental Anatomy

Study changes to our bodies over time. (traces structural changes that occur throughout the life span..evolution)

Comparative anatomy

anatomical similarities & differences between types of animals, typically vertebrates (homologous structures, basic vertebrate embryotic development/body plan)

-homology is a type

Synapomorphies

shared derived traits; all members of a group have that trait (ex: vertebrate embryos, arthropods have head, abdomen, thorax, cnidarians have radial symmetry and nematocysts)

Vertebrate synapomorphies

Dorsal hollow nerve cord

-Notochord

-Post-anal tail

-Pharyngeal arches

Braincase

somites

segmental blocks forming muscles, vertebrae, etc. ( shown in vertebrate embryo similarities)

limb buds

small embryonic bumps or "buds" of tissue that grow into limbs

when are the similarities between vertebrates most apparent?

when comparing embryos at comparable stages of development. (same time) (they are less obvious when comparing adult vertebrates)

What are the 6 levels of organization in the human body in order from simplest to most complex?

1) chemical/ molecular, 2) cellular, 3) tissue, 4) organ, 5) organ system, 6) organism

what are the steps of the formation of protein fibers (10μm) in the chemical/molecular level of organization in the body

1)molecules are formed from the bonding of interacting atoms.

2) complex contractile protein fibers are organized from molecules

3) contractile protein fibers are found within heart muscle cells

cellular level of organization (heart example)

interlocking cardiac muscle cells (the cells are cellular level) form cardiac muscle tissue.

tissue level of organization (heart example)

composed of cells and some surrounding material...(ex. cardiac muscle tissue makes up most of the heart walls)

organ level of organization (heart example)

combination of tissues (can be different types) (ex.the heart is a complex dimensional organ)

organ system level of organization (heart example)

combination of various organs (ex. the cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels. they work together to preform a specific purpose (to deliver oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other important substances to cells and organs in the body)

What are the 11 organ systems?

integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive

(I,S,M,N,E,C,L,R,D,U,R)

what is the difference between all the organ systems

they each have different cells, tissue, organs to perform a different primary homeostatic roles

organism

An individual living thing

human organism (level of organization (heart example) )

a well organized unit of body parts... All organ systems work together to keep the body healthy and alive

what are the 4 main elements that account for more than 99% of the total number of atoms in the human body

hydrogen (62%), oxygen (26%), carbon (10%), Nitrogen (1.5%),

(Never Hide Our Cake)

what is the molecular composition of the human body?

water (66%), lipids (10%), protein (20%), carbs (3%) ...other=1%

trace elements

required by an organism in only minute quantities (occur in much smaller amounts but are still important to body's functions)

(ex. iron occurs less than 1% in body but its super important for hemoglobin function which carries oxygen through the body.)

what are the trace elements in the human body?

silicone, flouride, copper, magnesium, zinc, selenium cobalt, molybdenum, cadmium, chromium, tin, aluminum, and boron

T/F the elements that make up cells are living?

False! the elements that make up cells are not living... the cell is the first unit of life (this is why the cellular level is the smallest living unit)

what are the characteristics of life?

1) order

2) regulation (homeostasis)

3) growth and development

4) energy processing (convert 1 type of energy from another)

5) respond to the environment

6) reproduction

7) evolutionary adaptation

(think virus life cycle and omnivores regularly gather energy right round eve)

Are organelles living?

No! cells are comprised of organells which are composed of molecules but! the cell is the first unit of life so nothing smaller than it is living

what are the vital life functions?

responsiveness, growth and differentiation, reproduction, movement, and metabolism and excretion.

Responsiveness

internal and external respond to changes via acute or chronic adjustments; (homeostasis) (example. hand on hot stove, or sweating when its hot outside )

Growth and Differentiation

example. we have to maintain an optimal range of temperature and ph to keep from denaturing our proteins.

includes: hypertrophy (inc. cell size), hyperplasia (in cell #), differentiation (cells w/ functions)

Hypertrophy

increase cell growth in size!

hyperplasia

increase in number of cells

Differentiation

process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

Metabolism and excretion

ability to take in nutrients and excrete wastes. Organisms rely on chemical reactions to provide energy for responsiveness, growth, reproduction, and movement. They also synthesize complex chemicals, such as proteins.

(includes: anabolism (synthesis of molecules), catabolism (break down of molecules), absorption (bringing materials in the body), respiration (how bod uses Oxygen))

Metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

Excretion

Process by which metabolic wastes(CO2, excess ions) are eliminated from the body

Anabolism

Constructive metabolism; the process of synthesizing (building up) larger more complex molecules from smaller ones. (uses energy)

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down complex molecules into smaller,less-complex ones, releasing energy.

Respiration

absorbtion, transport, and use of oxygen

T/F all organ systems have multiple homeostatic functions that overlap, but each has unique primary functions for homeostasis

True! most organ systems overlap multiple others; however this is false for the reproductive system because it doesn't have a primary homeostatic function since you can live without it...its only purpose is to reproduce new life.

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as ph, temperature, or blood glucose, around a particular level

The Integumentary system

-primary function: protects against the external environment

-secondary: thermoregulation and sensory... also water retention! (we loose water slower than other organisms)

organs/components:

-skin also called cutaneous membrane (dermis, epidermis),

- hair follecules (hair, sebaceous glands),

-sweat glands

-nails

-subcutaneous layer

what are the 2 types of skin and their primary functions?

epidermis- covers the surface, protects deeper tissue

dermis- nourishes epidermis; provides strength; contains glands

Epidermis

the outermost layer of skin and the only layer in direct contact with the outside environment....covers the surface, protects deeper tissue

Dermis

The inner layer of the skin that nourishes epidermis and provides strength; contains hair follicles, sweat glands, nerve endings, and blood vessels.

sweat glands

produce perspiration for evaporative cooling

Nails

coverings that protect and stiffen distal tips of digits

sensory receptors

provide sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, pain

subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)

-Beneath dermis; insulating layer

-Areolar and adipose connective tissue

-*Not considered part of the skin

-Contains blood vessels that supply skin

-stores lipids; attaches skin to deeper structures

skeletal system

-primary function: support and protection

-secondary function: immunity, storage of Ca++, and feeding

includes:

-bones, cartilages, and joints (axial and appendicular)

-ligaments (connects)

-bone marrow (blood cell production)

bones, cartilage, and joints

made up of

Axial skeleton: support and protect soft tissues; bones store minerals; protects brain spinal cord, sense organs and soft tissue of thoracic cavity; supports the body weight over lower limbs

Appendicular skeleton: provides internal support and positioning of the limbs; supports and moves axial skeleton

axial skelleton

components: skull, vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, sternum, supporting cartilages and ligaments

primary functions: support and protect soft tissues; bones store minerals; protects brain spinal cord, sense organs and soft tissue of thoracic cavity; supports the body weight over lower limbs

bone marrow

primary site of blood cell production (red bone marrow); storage of energy reserves in fat cells (yellow bone marrow)

How does the skeletal system maintain homeostasis?

maintains calcium levels in the blood

T/F red bone marrow makes white blood cells?

True! Red bone marrow produces blood cells (hematopoiesis). Stem cells in your red bone marrow (hematopoietic stem cells) create red and white blood cells and platelets, all of which are components of your whole blood

The Muscular system

Primary function: locomotion

Secondary function: thermoregulation and storage of amino acids

-it also provides support and produces heat

contains: skeletal muscles- (axial muscles appendicular muscles), and tendons and aponeuroses

how does the muscular system provide thermoregulation?

it provides heat with the rapid contraction of muscles causing friction which keeps you warm (shaking/ shivering)

skeletal muscles

provide skeletal movement; control entrances to digestive and respiratory tracts and exits to digestive and urinary tracks; produce heat; support skeleton; protect soft tissue

Axial muscles- support and position axial skeleton

Appendicular muscles- support, move and brace limbs

tendons and aponeuroses

Transmit the contractile forces of skeletal muscle to bone in order to move

Aponeuroses are

collagenous sheets or ribbons that are flattened tendons attaching muscles

the nervous system

it directs immediate responses to stimuli, usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems

primary function: relays/ processes info for homeostasis and senses

secondary function: hormones (pituitary gland)

components: Central nervous system (CNS) (brain, spinal cord, special senses)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord and special senses.

primary function: its the controls center for nervous system; processes information; short term control over activities of other systems

the brain- performs complex integrated functions; controls both voluntary and autonomic activities

spinal cord- relays information to and from the brain; performs less complex integrated activities

special senses- provide sensory input to the brain relating to sight, hearing, smell, taste, and equilibrium

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) with other systems and with sense organs.

endocrine system

primary function: chronic homeostasis

secondary function: ALLOWS for reproduction

components:

-pineal gland

-pituitary gland

-thyroid gland

-parathyroid gland

-thyymus

-adrenal glands

-kidneys

-pancreas

- gonads (testes and ovaries)

pineal gland

may control typing of reproduction and set day-night rhythms (penial= penis so controls when the best time to get dick is for reproduction)

pituitary gland

controls other endocrine glands; regulates growth and fluid balance

Thyroid gland

controls tissue metabolic rate; regulates calcium levels (looks like angel wings so controls the metabolic rate of when tissue dies {goes to heaven} and forms together to make new life/ more tissue)

parathyroid glad

regulate calcium levels (with thyroid)

thymus

Gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart that controls maturation of T lymphocytes.

T Lymphocytes

A type of white blood cell formed in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue that make antibodies to fight off infections such as cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

Adrenal Gland

little mass above kidneys that regulate water balance, tissue metabolism, and cardiovascular and respiratory activity

Kidneys

control red blood cell production and elevate blood pressure

pancreas

An organs in the abdominal cavity above kidneys thats job is to regulates blood glucose levels by secreting insulin and glucagon

Gonads

sex glands (ovaries [women] and testes[men]) that support the sexual characteristics and reproductive functions of each sex

cardiovascular system

it transports cells and dissolved materials, including nutrients, wastes, and gases throughout the body

primary function: transport of gasses and nutrients

secondary functions: thermoregulation 9with restriction and expansion of vessels), PH balance, immune function, and endocrine function (delivers the hormones)

components:

-heart

-blood vessels (arteries and capillaries, veins)

-blood

heart

muscular organ that propels blood; maintains blood pressure

Blood vessels

examples are: arteries, capillaries, veins

- they distribute blood around the body carrying blood and materials from the heart to capillaries

Blood

A connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma that transports Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and blood cells; delivers nutrients and hormones; removes wastes; assists in temperature regulation and defense against disease.

Arteries

Blood vessels that carry blood AWAY from the heart and too capillaries....

Capillaries

permit diffusion between blood and interstitial fluids

interstitial fluids

fluids located between cells