Studied by 0 peoplelearning
the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together.The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment,producing consequences
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences the one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory)
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
Ex.(Learning to tie your shoes)
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words
preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
instinctive drift
the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
ex.(Your rat Nelson explores a maze with no reward. Running this same maze for a food reward with few errors demonstrates this concept)
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
observational learning
learning by observing others
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific-behavior
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so(imitation, language learning, and empathy)
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
ex.(Calling your new romantic partner by your old romantic partner's name)
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories -- of facts and events --for storage
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood(Strong emotions tend to make you remember more)
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes ( can vary based on traits; population;enviornment)
Stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
sexual response cycle
(Masters and Johnson) - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. lasts for a few minutes to a day or more
sexual disfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
Estrogens
sex hormones, contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
Testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional amount of this hormone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
Asexual
having no sexual attraction to others
Erectile Disorder
inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis
Female orgasmic disorder
distress due to infrequent or never experiencing orgasm
Paraphilias
sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or non-consenting persons
AIDS(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
a life-threating, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus(HIV); depletes the immune system
Sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of one’s own sex(homo), the other sex(hetero) or both(bi)
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group
How did Thorndike contribute to the field of learning?
Combined learning theory, psychometrics, and applied research for school-related subjects to form psychology of education
The Garcia effect
a phenomenon in which conditioned taste aversions develop after a specific food becomes associated with a negative reaction(nausea or vomiting)
The Garcia effects impact on learning
allowed for the discovery of conditioned taste aversions
Taste Aversion
a learned association between the taste of a particular food and illness such that the food is considered to be the cause of the illness
How is taste aversion different from typical classical conditioning?
Only needs to happen once; needs time to be learned
What is the role of cognition in learning?
encourages students to “think about their thinking” as a means to help them unlock a concept or subject they struggle with
What is an example of latent learning?
a mental representation of the spatial layout of an environment (done by observational learning and/or exploration)
What does Clive have?
Retrograde Amnesia
Describe Baddeley’s model of working memory
Working memory is like a multi-part system, and each system is responsible for a different function
Note
Flashcard