Gov final

Strategic voting

voting for your preferred candidate who has a realistic chance of winning

Strategic entry

candidates entering with their most preferred party that has a realistic chance of winning

Elites

Coordinate policy space

Whips

an individual whose job it is to ensure that members of the party attend

legislative sessions and vote as the party leadership desires

Adverse selection

A problem that happens before someone is hired or chosen—when the principal cannot tell if the agent is truly qualified or aligned with their goals.

Agency loss

The gap between what the principal wants and what the agent actually does. The bigger the gap, the bigger the “loss.”

Agent

The person/actor who is given power to act on behalf of someone else (the principal).

Delegation

When a principal gives authority or responsibility to an agent to act for them.

Ex ante mechanisms

Tools used before or during delegation to prevent problems—like screening, rules, or setting standards.

Ex post mechanisms

Tools used after delegation to check performance—like audits, reviews, or punishments.

Fire alarm system

A monitoring approach where the principal waits for others (media, interest groups, citizens) to signal problems with the agent.

Police patrol system

A direct, constant monitoring system where the principal actively checks what the agent is doing.

Moral hazard

A problem that happens after delegation—when the agent does things the principal would not want because the agent can’t be fully watched.

Perfect agent

An ideal agent who completely follows the principal’s preferences without deviation.

Principal

The person/actor who gives authority to an agent to act on their behalf.

Principal–agent problem

The conflict that arises because the principal and agent may have different goals, and the principal cannot perfectly monitor the agent.

Cabinet

The group of senior ministers who head government departments and assist the prime minister.

Caretaker government

A temporary government that stays in power until a new government is formed, usually after an election or resignation. It avoids major decisions.

Cohabitation

In semi-presidential systems, when the president and prime minister come from different political parties.

Connected coalition

A coalition where all parties are “next to each other” ideologically on the political spectrum.

Constructive vote of no confidence

A rule requiring parliament to vote out the Prime minster and simultaneously vote in a replacement. It prevents sudden government collapses.

Formateur

The person chosen to form a government—usually the leader of the largest party.

Government coalition

A ruling partnership between two or more political parties that together hold a majority.

Informateur

A person appointed (often by the head of state) to explore which coalitions are possible before a formateur is selected.

Investiture vote

potential government may have to demonstrate that it has sufficient support before it can take office

Least minimal winning coalition

A minimal coalition with the smallest number of seats possible to have a majority.

Minimal winning coalition

A coalition that has just enough seats to control a majority—removing any party would destroy the majority.

Minority government

A government formed by a party/coalition that does not hold a majority but still governs because others do not oppose it.

Parliamentary democracy

the government depends on a legislative majority to exist, and the head of state isn’t popularly elected for a fixed term and can be taken out by a vote of no confidence

Premier-presidential system

A semi-presidential type where the prime minister is responsible to the parliament—not the president.

Presidential democracy

A system where the president is both head of state and government, elected separately from the legislature, and not removable by parliament.

President-parliamentary system

A system where the prime minister is accountable to both the parliament and the president.

Prime Minister

The head of government in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system.

Semi-presidential democracy

A system with both a directly elected president and a prime minister who depends on the legislature. Political responsible to the National Assembly.

Surplus majority government

A coalition that has more seats than necessary to have a majority

Vote of confidence

A vote initiated by the government asking parliament to show continued support. Losing it may force resignation.

Vote of no confidence

A vote to remove the government. If passed, the PM must resign or call elections.

Gamson’s Law

The idea that parties in a coalition get cabinet posts proportional to the number of seats they contribute.

Alternative vote (AV)

A ranked-choice system where voters rank candidates, and votes are redistributed until one candidate has a majority.

Closed party list

the order of candidates elected is determined by the party itself, and voters aren’t able to express a preference for a particular candidate.

District magnitude

The number of seats available in a district.

• 1 = single-member

• More than 1 = multi-member

Divisor system

A mathematical method used to allocate seats in proportional representation (like D’Hondt or Sainte-Laguë).

Electoral integrity

The degree to which elections follow democratic standards—free, fair, and transparent.

Electoral malpractice

Manipulation, fraud, or unfair actions that undermine an election’s integrity.

Electoral system

a set of laws and regulations that govern the electoral competition between candidates and parties, determines things such as the electoral formula, ballot structure, and district magnitude.

Electoral threshold

The minimum percentage a party must win to get seats.

Formal threshold

A threshold written into law (ex: must win 5% to enter parliament)

Free party list

A list system where voters can choose candidates from different parties (rare).

List PR system

A proportional representation system where parties present lists of candidates and seats are allocated proportionally.

Majoritarian electoral system

A system where the candidate/party with the most votes wins, often exaggerating the winner’s power (like first-past-the-post).

Majority-runoff two-round system

If no candidate wins 50% in round 1, the top two face off in a second round.

Natural threshold

The effective minimum support needed to win a seat based on district size and number of parties, even without a legal rule.

Open party list

Voters can pick individual candidates within the party list, not just the party.

Panachage

Voters can pick candidates from multiple party lists on the same ballot.

Proportional representation (PR) electoral system

Parties win seats roughly in proportion to the votes they receive.

Quota

the number of votes a party needs to guarantee themselves a seat in a particular district. It's essentially the 'price' a party must pay in votes to win a seat.

Single-member district plurality (SMDP)

Also called first-past-the-post—the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority.

Single nontransferable vote (SNTV)

Voters cast one vote in a multi-member district; top vote-getters win the seats.

Single transferable vote (STV)

Alternative vote applied to multimember districts, Rank order candidates, Candidates must obtain a quota, If all seats not filled, eliminate candidate with lowest number of first place votes and re-allocate, repeat. Minimizes wasted votes and Weakness votes.

Attribute

characteristic that qualifies individual for membership in an identity category.

Cross-cutting attributes

Attributes that divide society in different ways—groups overlap. Reduces conflict.

Identity category

social group in which an individual can place herself.

Duverger’s theory

Explains how electoral systems shape party systems:

• Plurality → two parties

PR → multiple parties

Effective number of electoral parties

A measure showing how many parties matter based on votes, not just raw count.

Effective number of legislative parties

a way to measure the size of a country's party system, focusing on the number of parties that win seats in the legislature and how those seats are distributed.

Mechanical effect of electoral laws

How rules translate votes into seats.

Multiparty system

A system with more than two major parties.

One-party dominant system

Multiple parties exist, but one consistently wins and dominates the system.

Party identification

A voter’s psychological attachment to a political party.

Political party

Group of officials linked with a sizable group of citizens into an organization who wish to attain or maintain political power. Job is to Structure the political world, Recruit and socialize political elites, Mobilize the masses, and Mobilize legislators

Reinforcing attributes

Attributes that line up in the same direction—deepening divisions and conflicts.

Single-party system

Only one political party is legally allowed.

Strategic effect of electoral laws

How rules influence voter and party behavior (e.g., people avoid “wasting” votes in majoritarian systems).

Two-party system

A system where only two parties have a realistic chance of winning.

Open List

Voter chooses preferred party and candidate within party Total number of seats won by each party determined by total number of votes given to its candidates, Order of candidates determined by individual votes received, Greater voter freedom, Internal party fighting

Free List

Multiple votes, Can vote across parties (panachage), Even more voter freedom