Unit 1 AOS 2

Heart vs Brain

A historical debate as to whether the heart or the brain is responsible for mental processes, such as thought, emotion, and behaviour

Mind-body problem

The complex philosophical question as to whether our mind is separate and distinguishable from our body or whether they are one integrated entity

Dualism

The belief that the human mind and body are separate and distinguishable from one another

Monism

The belief that the human mind and body are together a singular complete entity

Phrenology

The study of the shape and size of the human skull to determine personality and mental functioning

First brain experiments

Some of the most important experiments on the brain occurred in the 1800s and 1900s, informing much of what we now know about the brain and its functions.

Ablation

The surgical removal, destruction, or cutting of a region of brain tissue

Brain lesioning

The practice of inducing and/or studying the effects of damage to an area of the brain

Split-brain research

Split-brain research involves studying patients who have had their corpus callosum severed, leading to separate functioning hemispheres in the brain.

Cerebral hemispheres

The symmetrical halves of the cerebrum in the brain

Hemispheric specialisation

The difference in functioning between the left and right hemispheres of the brain when performing a specific behaviour or task

Neuroimaging

A range of techniques used to capture images of the brain’s structure, function, and activities

Structural neuroimaging

Structural neuroimaging techniques produce images of the brain’s structure and composition.

Functional neuroimaging

Functional neuroimaging techniques which use images to show us the brain’s activity and functions.

Computerised tomography (CT)

A neuroimaging technique that involves taking continuous 2D x-ray images of the brain which are then stacked to create a comprehensive 3D image of the brain

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic
and radio fields to take detailed 2D and 3D images of the brain

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A neuroimaging technique that uses a scanning device to take coloured images of the brain, showing its functional activity by tracing the levels of a radioactive substance in the brain

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to take 2D and 3D images of the brain and record its activity levels

Brain

A complex organ contained within the skull that coordinates mental processes and behaviour, and regulates bodily activity

Brainstem

An extension of the spinal cord that is made up of the medulla, pons, and midbrain

Hindbrain

A region at the base of the brain, located around and including some of the brainstem

• responsible for coordinating basic survival functions, including movement, breathing rate, heart rate, and digestion.

• medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Cerebellum

• Monitor and coordinate skeletal muscle movement

• Coordination and balance

• receives information about the position of
  the body in space

• information about planned motor movements from other brain regions

• moving smoothly

Medulla

• mass of neurons

• to regulate autonomic processes, such as respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion

• initiating reflexive actions

• medulla connects the brain to the spinal cord, creating a seamless pathway through which neural signals are transmitted

Pons

• relay information between different brain areas

• Acts as bridge ‘Pons’ latin for bridge

• regulating the respiratory system and controlling sleeping, dreaming, and waking

• involuntary behaviours, such as blinking

Midbrain

A region at the centre of the brain, between the hindbrain and forebrain, and is part of the brainstem

• relaying neural information between the hindbrain and the forebrain

• processing sensory information, such as auditory, visual, and tactile information.

• coordinating motor movement relating to sensory stimuli, such as eye movements.

• regulating sleep and physiological arousal.

Reticular formation

• network of neurons located predominantly in the midbrain extends along the brainstem

• filter neural information that is travelling to the brain and direct these messages to various areas and structures of the brain.

• integrate and relay neural information relating to survival and reflexive functions.

• regulate sleep, wakefulness, and consciousness.

• regulate physiological arousal and alertness through the reticular activating

  system (RAS)

Forebrain

A large and prominent brain region that is located at the top and front of the brain

• sophisticated mental processes: cognition, perception, learning, language, and memory

• Receiving and processing sensory information, and initiating voluntary motor movement

• cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus

Cerebrum

Largest structure in the human brain. It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by the corpus callosum (a bundle of nerve fibres)

• coordinating sophisticated mental processes, including cognition, perception, judgement, language, and problem-solving.

• performing complex functions, including receiving and processing sensory information, and initiating voluntary motor movement.

Thalamus

Comprised of two oval structures located deep beneath the cerebrum and above the midbrain

• filtering system and relay centre for sensory information(hearing, taste, touch, sight), excluding olfactory information

• relays motor signals between higher and lower brain
  areas involved in motor control

Hypothalamus

maintain optimal biological functioning by regulating internal processes, including hormone levels, hunger, thirst, body temperature, and blood pressure

• Maintaining homeostasis

• Component of limbic system(the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses)

Brain lesion

A brain lesion is when an area of brain tissue or a brain structure experiences damage due to disease or injury.

Cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the cerebrum that covers the brain

Motor areas

Motor areas initiate and carry out motor function

Sensory areas

Sensory areas receive sensory information

Association areas

Association areas integrate information from sensory and motor areas

Frontal lobe

the largest and frontmost lobe of the cerebral cortex that is composed of motor and association areas

Prefrontal cortex

The prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in coordinating complex mental processes such as logic, reasoning, decision-making, personality, and voluntary motor movement, while also regulating emotions and exhibiting higher-order cognitive abilities, especially evident in adolescents' behavioural immaturity and impulsivity due to ongoing development.

• Association area

• Apart of the frontal lobe

Primary motor cortex

The primary motor cortex receives sequence of motion from premotor cortex and controls skeletal muscle movements

• motor area

• Apart of the frontal lobe

Premotor cortex

receives planned motor impulse from prefrontal cortex and creates organised sequence of motion

• motor area

• Apart of the frontal lobe

Broca’s area

Responsible for speech production and movement of mouth and tongue

• Association area

• apart of the frontal lobe

Primary auditory cortex

Receives and processes auditory information from ears

• sensory area

• apart of temporal lobe

Primary sensorimotor cortex

Receives and processes sensory information via sensory neurons in the body

• Sensory area

• Apart of parietal lobe

Primary visual cortex

Receives and processes information from light areas in the retina

• Sensory area

• Apart of the occipital lobe

Wernicke’s area

Comprehends meaning of language

• Association area

Parietal lobe

the lobe of the cerebral cortex, located behind the frontal lobe, and is composed of sensory and association areas

Temporal lobe

the lowest lobe of the cerebral cortex, located beneath the parietal lobe, and is composed of sensory and association areas

Occipital lobe

the rearmost lobe of the cerebral cortex, located behind the parietal lobe, and is composed of sensory and association areas

Neuron

a nerve cell that receives and transmits neural information

Structure of a neuron

• Dendrites: receive neural messages

• Myelin: insulates the neuron and prevents disturbance from other neurons

• Axon terminal: sends neuronal messages to the next neuron

Synapse

the region that includes the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron

Synaptic gap

The space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

Neuroplasticity

the ability of the brain to change in response to experience or environmental stimulation

Developmental plasticity

changes in the brain that occur in response to ageing and maturation

Synaptic pruning

the elimination of underused synapses

Synaptogenesis

the formation of synapses between neurons as axon terminals and dendrites grow

Myelination

the formation and development of myelin around the axon of a neuron

Brain trauma

damage to the brain that is caused by an external force

Adaptive plasticity

the brain’s ability to restore adequate neural functioning over time after sustaining injury

Sprouting

a neuron’s ability to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons

Rerouting

a neuron’s ability to form a new connection with another undamaged neuron

Acquired brain injury

all types of brain injury that occur after birth

Non-traumatic brain injury

Damage to the brain caused by internal factors, such as a lack of oxygen or a tumour

Neurological disorders

diseases characterised by any damage to or malfunctioning of the nervous system

Parkinson’s disease

a progressive disease of the nervous system characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms

Neurodegenerative diseases

a disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that is responsible for the coordination of voluntary movement and the experience of pleasure and pain

Epilepsy

a neurological disorder that is associated with abnormal electrical activity in the brain and is categorised by recurrent seizures

Seizures

brief episodes of uncontrolled and unrestricted electrical discharging of neurons in the brain

Machine learning

an element of artificial intelligence that allows software to become more accurate at predicting outcomes by mimicking the way that humans learn

Supervised learning

This process involves the use of labelled data to train algorithms on how to classify data or predict outcomes.

Unsupervised learning

This process involves using an algorithm to identify patterns or trends within data (that are not labelled) that have not yet been discovered.

Gut

the long flexible tube from mouth to anus that is the passageway involved in digestion

Gut-brain axis

the bidirectional connection between the gut and the brain through multiple parts of the nervous system

Gut microbiota

all of the microorganisms that live in the gut

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)

a progressive and fatal brain disease associated with repeated head injuries and concussions

Symptoms:

• Loss of attention and concentration.

• Depression and anxiety.

• Impairments in executive functioning, such as decision-making.

Concussion

a mild traumatic brain injury that temporarily disrupts brain function

Post-mortem examination

an assessment of a dead body that occurs to determine the cause of death

Neurofibrillary tangles

an accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron entirely

How does CTE present in the brain

Widespread build up of p-tau results in neurofibrillary tangles that disrupt neuronal functioning and eventually lead to the death of neurons.