AP Gov: Unit 2: Linkage Institutions: Elections & Voting, Parties, Campaigns, Interest Groups, Media

Linkage Institutions

• Connect people and government

• News, elections, parties, media, interest groups

• Impact what people know

• People can use to influence politics

Political Engagement

• Anytime a person tries to influence political action

• Indirectly shapes policy (design of politics

Voting

• Most common form of participation

• Conventional + Direct

• Difficult to determine turnout

• VAP (percent who can vote that did vote)

  • Useful, but ineligible voters not included

• Voter eligibility

  • Solved issues with VAP by adding all eligible voters

  • Difficult to calculate

• Registered population

  • Counted all that were registered

  • Registered voters are more likely to vote, which skews the data

• Those who vote are focused on by polling companies

• Likely voters

  • Educated, more income, registered, older, black, female, married, urban

  • Concerns of non-voters usually not adressed

• Most choose based on party ID

Conventional Participation

• Ordinary, easy, legal political participation

Direct Participation

• Political participation with a specific impact

• Will or will not succeed

Money + Time (participation)

• Conventional + Direct

• Money goes to political candidates

• Not as common

• Many people contact officials directly

Civil Input (participation)

• Conventional + Direct

• Letters, town meetings, lobbying

Protest

• Unconventional + indirect

• Not always illegal

• Applies pressure to political actors through media pressure and salience

Direct Action

• Unconventional + indirect

• Also known as civil disobedience

• Illegal, but peaceful

Radicalism

• Unconventional + indirect

• Direct action but harmful

Informal political participation

• Talking with friends about politics, political conversations, etc.

Elections

• Run by states/localities

• The right to vote is not guaranteed by Constitution

• The government does not have the power to regulate voting

• Congress can control how states run elections

  • 15th, 19th, 24th, and 26th amendments (race, gender, income, age respectively)

Voting Rights Act

• Comes from Congress’s powers (can prevent discrimination by 15th amendment, can stop states from denying rights like the right to vote, can regulate elections)

• Prevents vote dilution

• Enforcement

  • Person being discriminated against can bring civil action lawsuit

  • Government can sue states

  • Pre-clearance

    • List of troublesome states

    • Must get approval from senate before changing voting procedures

• Section 2 and 5 prohibit race-based gerrymandering

  • These sections have an implied requirement that minorities at a certain percent of the popualtion must get one majority district

Vote dilution

• Attempt to make someone’s vote not count

• Ex. Putting more voting places in non-black neighborhoods

Other achievements of voting legislation

• Mail-in voting, disability access, overseas voting, early access voting

NVRA 1992 (National Voting Registration Act)

• People have frequent interactions with the government

• This act required the government to let people register to vote whenever they interacted with the government (driver’s license, medicare, etc.)

HAVA 2002 (Help America Vote Act)

• Bad voting machines were used in 2001, made the election uncountable

• This act forced states to update their mechanisms

• It was very expensive

Gerrymandering

• Drawing voting districts to manipulate voting

• Can occur as packing or cracking

• It happens in all democracies

• Recent changes in computing and data collection have made voters behavior more trackable and this more accurate

• New districting policies are used by states to do this

  • Bipartisan committee, state courts, interest groups

• Incumbent is generally favored using this

Packing

• Occurs when one district is drawn for one demographic majority, and multiple are drawn for another

Cracking

• Occurs when a demographic or party is split among many districts, getting no majorities

Baker v. Carr

• Congressional seats are not always proportional to the amount of seats in Congress

• States are not required to use an equal population

• Some voters disadvantaged (urban populations higher with less representation)

• Tennessee residents sued in the south on violations of the 14th amendment and Article 3 Section 2 of the Constitution

• Supreme Court agreed with Tennesseeans

• Forced states to redistrict

Shaw v. Reno

• Gerrymandering lawsuits were common by this time

• North Carolina drew its 12th district along a highway that snaked through the state that had numerous black voters on it

• Black voters sued, thought they were being disadvantaged, sued for packing

• Supreme Court sided with black voters, said districts couldn’t be drawn solely on the basis of race

• 14th, 15th amendments used, as well as VRA

Rucho v. Common Cause

• Math modeling used with new technology

• Shows the evolution of gerrymandering

• Difficult to measure extent of gerrymandering

Negative incentives against voting

• Opportunity Cost

• Information Cost

• Political efficacy

• Voters overcome these barriers

Civic Duty

• Moral/individual duty to vote

• Used to surpass negative incentives

• Belief that you should vote in order to uphold democracy

• Incentivizes most, even low efficacy voters

Types of elections

• Presidential has most turnout

• Midterms are lower that presidential (higher information cost)

• State level typically lower

• Initiatives/referenda depend on situation

• Primaries very low

• Turnout in general is very low

Retrospective Voting

• Voting based on how the previous administration handled their job

• Pocketbook voting most common

• Sometimes based around foreign policy

Policy Voting

• Those who vote based on a candidate’s policy preferences

• Single issue voters

• Not as significant today

• Voters must have clear sense of policy positions

• Voters must know where candidates stand on issues

• Voters must see where candidates differ on issues

• Voters must cast a vote for candidate they favor

• Most know candidates but fail to vote

• Sometimes complicated (multiple policies)

• Candidates often make policy positions clear (more straightforward and clear)

Aspirational Voting

• Those who vote for people that inspire them

Oppositional Voting

• Those who vote against people they dislike

Thermostatic Voting

• Those who vote to get the current party out of power

Candidate Evaluation Voting

• Those who vote based on the character qualities of candidates

Cross-pressuring

• Non party-ID voters can determine the outcome of an election

• This occurs to these voters by both parties

Median Voter Theory

• A spectrum of candidates and voters exists

• Voters vote for the candidate closest to them on the spectrum

Valence Issue

• Political issue on which everyone agrees

• No unique positions can be taken on these issues by politicians

Non-salient issues

• Political issues that are only important to a select few

Position Issue

• Issue that politicians use to differentiate themselves from other candidates

Party

• Nominates people for office

• Tries to control policymaking

• Defined by policy goals, not ideology

• Only goal is to get candidate to win

• Inevitable in democracy

• They are used by political actors to push policy goals

Party in the electorate

• Party uses “heurisitc cues” (voters know which policies candidates support based on the party they identify with, makes voting simpler, less information cost)

• Party image (values/symbols)

• Party platform (what the party wants to do)

• Party coalition (groups/organizations similar to the party)

• Try to get public support for the party

• Spectrum of supporters (low/high intensity identifiers, party officials, elected officials)

Party as organization

• Local organization raise money for the party

• State organization organize state elections

• The Republican and Democratic National Conventions are held to organize party

• Recruit/nominate candidates (go out and find those who are interested)

• Raise money and fund campaigns

• Catalog information about voters

Party in government

• Coordinates policymakers

• Committees are manipulated by party officials in government

• People are nominated to higher office

• Strong members of the party coalition are empowered

Control of the party system

• No formal requirements for parties

• Senate and HOR determine how committees work, rest left to parties

• Electoral college reinforces dominance of two party system

Responsible Party Model

• Clear, unified agenda for each party

• Differentiate themselves from other party

• Must follow through on policy goals

• Not always accurate (people don't always vote based on policy)

Duverger’s Law

• In a winner takes all, 3rd parties detract from the side they are closest to by taking votes

• 3rd parties can expose divisions and catalyze realignment

• They are not long-lasting

Changes in parties

• Party and leadership changed to facilitate party goals

• Change positions after major events

• Realigning moments change parties

• Campaign/media technology has improved and changed parties

• Changes in nomination/voting law can change

Party system

• Stable demographic set who votes for one of two dominant parties

• Consistent policy/ideological stances are used to appeal to people

First Party System

• Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans

• Cleavages in region

• State powers, France + England, NA relations, slavery, expansion controversial

• Newspapers used

• Candidates didn’t do much

• Caucus system

• Electorate limited to white voters

• Fractured by Jackson

Second Party System

• Democrats vs. Whigs

• Western farmers, immigrants, urban workers, enslavers are all new groups

• Slavery, westward expansion, banking, and tarriffs were controversial

• Electorate was expanded to all white men

• Fractured by the Civil War

Third Party System

• Democrats v. Republicans (from now on)

• Industrial working class, free black men in the electorate (black men limited after reconstruction)

• Social/technological change, organized labor, immigration, monopolizaiton, imperialism controversial

• Telegraph, trains for campaigning

• Fractures because of economic problems of farmers

Fourth Party System

• Progressive and non-progressive wings in each party

• Inconsistent ideoloically (tried to appeal to as many people as possible)

• Low polarization

• Economic intervention/immigration controversial

• Women added to electorate

• Yellow press, new tools for campaigning

• Fractures because of Great Depression

Fifth Party System

• White voter cleavages

• WWII, CW, Red Scare

• TV, Radio

• Primaries cemented

• Fractures because of Vietnam War

Sixth Party System

• Urbanacity cleavages

• Evangelism grows

• Immigration, LGBT rights, welfare reform controversial

• Conservative domination

• Cable TV, parties more complicated

• Campaigns more effective and expensive

• Fractured by Social Media and Trump

Seventh Party System

• Trump/Obama

• LGBT issues very important

• Swing states and polarization

Party Network

• Funding groups, interest groups, community leaders

• Empowers and enhances the party

• Connects people to parties indirectly

Party Money

• Campaign funding from party very important

• Donations are recieved and funneled towards worthy candidates

Nomination/Selection process

• Nearly impossible to seek office without assistance from party

• Primaries mobilize voters early

• Databases are used to help campaigns

Party in the legislative branch

• Congress leadership is distributed by party leaders

• Party leaders give out positions, pass bills, etc.

• Party priorities control legislators

Parties at the state/local level

• Very important to candidates at local level

• Expand party network, create organizations

Suffrage

• Right to vote

• Almost everyone over 18 has it

• Exceptions: non-citizens (banned at state level) and convicted criminals (differs based on state)

Political Efficacy

• Belief that ordinary people can influence government

• Convinces people to go to polls

• Those with a low amount of this are less likely to vote

Voter Registration Laws

• Laws that require individuals to place their name on an electoral roll before voting

• Harder to vote more than once, but has discouraged many from voting

• Different laws in different states

• Used to be strict in the South (court ceremony during business hours)

• Polemical Issue

Motor Voter Act

• 1993 act

• Made voter registration a lot easier (states had to include registration on driver’s license application)

• Not very successful at increasing voter turnout

Rational-Choice Theory

• Explains political processes and outcomes

• Political actors have goals and pursue them sensibly and efficiently

• Voters want to maximize odds that policies they want get passed

• Parties want to win office

• Party must select policies that are widely favored, and if they do they should be more successful

• Must stick to moderate policy in order to gain appeal

• Parties must develop individual identities to appeal to adherents

Party Identification

• Preference for one party or another

• Has decreased recently (more independents)

• Younger people more likely to be independent

Ticket Splitting

• Voting with one party for one office and the other for another office

• Voting for some Republicans and some Democrats

• Leads to more uncertainty for how a region will vote

• Even if a party has a big edge in a state, it may lose some seats because of this

National Convention

• Meeting of party every 4 years

• Writes party platform, nominates candidates for president and vice president

National Committee

• Leaders of the parties that come from states

• Lead the party between conventions

National Chairperson

• Director of each party

• Organize party

• Spend lots of money

New Deal Coalition

• Group of voters strongly in favor of Democratic ideals and New Deal policies

• Mostly urban dwellers, labor unions, catholics, Jews, the poor, and African Americans

• Mostly make up Democratic coalition today

Party Dealignment

• Recent trend

• Disengagement from politics (less party identification)

Third Party

• Linkage institutions that fall outside of the normal parties

• Rarely win elections, but can set foundations for future parties (ex. free-soilers)

• Some promote certain causes or extreme ideologies

• Some are offshoots of the major parties

• Some are extensions of a popular individual

Blue Dog Democrats

• Democrats that voted against Obama’s economically liberal plans

• Fiscally conservative, socially liberal

• Demonstrates how people in power use their own discretion

Campaign

• Organized attempt at winning an election

• Some ground rules

• All offices have different rules and strategies

Campaign Technology

• Campaigns driven by technology

• Social media, online fundraising, direct mail, polling

• Need money and experts (candidates too busy)

Direct Mail

• Mail sent to voters

• Technology gives campaigns voter information

• Mail can targeted at certain groups

Campaign Cycle

• Idea that campaigning never ends

• When one race ends, the next starts

• Invisible primary (always trying to ensure renomination)

• Must constantly outperform others

• Officials must split time between their duties and campaigning

Nationalization of politics

• Officials must appeal to national issues, even at the local level

• National issues more polaized

• Congressional races affected especially

Campaign Staff

• All campaigns need a professional staff

• Campaign managers, finance managers, organizers

• Used for digital marketing, direct mail, polling, and policy research

Media Battle

• Fight for positive media attention

• Free Media: Attention, not paid

• Paid Media: Payments for ads, AKA air war, very important to win elections

Field Battle

• Fight for recognition

• Canvassing, rallies, speeches

Digital Battle

• Must deliver a message

• Make sure candidates and the policies they support are known

• Strike down negatives

• Strike down opponents

• Incentivize your voters, decentivize other voters

Campaign War

• Four pronged battle for media, field, finance, and digital recognition

• Strength in all battles is needed for success

Fundraising

• Extremely important, finance fuels campaigns

• Small donors: small periodic donations, contacted through email

• Large donors: lump sums

Call Time

• Calling voters directly

• Very important for getting small donors

Congressional Campaigning

• Most Congressional seats are safe (seats reps/dems will always win)

• Incumbents have a huge advantage (known, have fundraising, have party connections, have lines gerrymandered)

Wave year

• Years where one party wins a bunch of seats in Congress

• Lowers incumbent advantages

• Usually midterms (people have an idea of how successful current party is)

Congressional Midterms

• Mostly thermostatic voting

• Lower turnout

• High political efficacy are overrepresented

• Ballot shared with local elections

• Party may intervene for close races

Campaign Finance

• Individuals can donate directly

• Donations can come from parties/PACs, which come from individual donations

• Modern campaigns extremely expensive

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)

• Defined political entities (PACs, campaigns, parties)

• Placed limits on individual contributions

• Campaigns can accept a limit on donations

  • If they do, they get a federal bonus

• Expenditure limits on campaigns

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

• Established by FECA

• Committee of 6 (3 reps, 3 dems)

• Monitor donations/expenditures by campaigners

• Mandates campaign reports

• Investigates infractions of finance law

Buckley v. Valeo

• Challenge of FECA

• Argues that spending money is an act of free speech

• FECA is unconstitutional

• Split decision

  • Big donations might be seen as corruption and can be limited

  • Limits on self-donations removed (impossible for there to be corruption)

  • Expenditure limits struck down

Post-FECA changes

• Theory arises that money always finds its way into campaigns

• Hard money: money people can spend directly on campaigns

• Soft money: money given to parties/PACs that is then passed on to campaigns

• People turn to soft money after FECA

• Independent supporters can accept unlimited contributions

• Party committees can bring in money

BCRA

• Passed in retaliation to soft money rise

• Modernized FECA

• Regulated individuals, PACs, parties, and campaign expenditures

• Ads had to claim ownership (powerful regulations)

Citizen’s United v. FEC

• Citizen’s United created documentary defaming Clinton family leading up to 2008 primary

• Stopped and sued by FEC (corporations regulated by FECA/BCRA

• Ruled that spending from corporations is also free speech and can’t be limited

• Uncapped donations are only corrupt if money goes directly to the campaign

• Led to development of SuperPACs

SuperPACs

• PACs not legally allowed to affiliate with campaigns

• Can accept unlimited contributions

• End up interacting with campaigns anyway (rules are vague)

Importance of donations

• Biggest spender doesn’t always win, but usually does

• Large donors give huge advantage

527 Groups

• Can take unlimited donations

• Must be about a specific issue

• Can coordinate with candidates, but can’t make supportive ads

Presidential Campaigns

• Permanent campaign (invisible primary)

• Incumbent not usually challenged for renomination

• Fundraising must be built early

Presidential Nomination

• Official endorsement of a candidate for office by a party

• Requires money, media, and momentum

• Each state sends delegates to national convention

• Delegates vote for nominee

• Whoever wins gets nomination

• Primaries are main way delegates are chosen (popular vote)

• Caucuses: mini-debates, informal voting

• Candidates must win support of delegates in each state (delegate chase)

• Early states are very important

• Super Tuesday (lots of states hold primaries at same time)

• Delegates typically bound to vote how they say they will

• Republicans have fewer delegates

• Republicans choose delegates based on winner-take-all system, Democrats choose based on proportianate voting

• Delegates typically vote how they say they will

Frontloading Problem

• States start primaries really early for media attention

• Candidates who win early get attention

• States get fundraising

• Some worry it rushes voters and campaigners