Psychology: Sleep, Development, and Cognitive Theories

Attention

focusing consciousness on specific stimuli or aspect of stimuli

Selective attention

focusing on specific information while ignoring information

Inattentional blindness

failing to detect available stimuli due to selective attention

Change blindness

failing to detect changes in stimuli due to selective attention

Circadian rhythm

biological clock (controlled by hypothalamus)

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

in hypothalamus - sensitive to change in light

Pineal gland

secretes melatonin

Melatonin

hormone that causes sleepiness

Sleep Stages

~90-minute cycles of sleep stages

Non-rapid eye movement (N-REM)

3 stages of sleep

N1

light sleep

N2

true sleep with brain activity slowing and reductions in heart rate and muscle tension

N3

deep sleep with further slowing of brain activity

Rapid eye movement (REM)

brain waves resemble wakefulness

Sleep paralysis

temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up

Paradixical sleep

active brain but inactive body during REM sleep

Evolutionary/adaptive theory

theory that sleep provides protection from predators in the dark

Restorative theory

theory that sleep supports growth and healing

Information processing theory

theory that sleep supports cognitive processes and memory formation

Effects of Sleep Deprivation

irritability, mood disruption, increased risk of depression and obesity

Manifest content

the actual images in the dream

Latent content

the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and wishes behind the manifest content

Developmental Psychology

scientific study of patterns of change and stability in humans

Development

the pattern of change from conception throughout the life span (womb to tomb)

Behavioral genetics

Study of genetic and environmental bases of individual differences in behavior and personality.

Heritability

Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences.

Adoption studies

Compare adopted children to adoptive families and biological families.

Twin studies

Compare pairs of monozygotic and same-sex dizygotic twins.

Monozygotic (MZ) twins

Share 100% genes.

Dizygotic twins (DZ)

Share 50% genes (on average).

Adoption twin studies

Compare MZ twins separated in infancy and MZ twins reared together.

Reflexes

Automatic responses to a specific stimulus.

Primitive reflexes

Basic reflexes present in infancy.

Sucking reflex

Disappears at 4 months.

Rooting reflex

Disappears at 4 weeks; touches the cheek and baby turns to that side and starts sucking.

Moro reflex

Disappears at 6 months; startle reflex where baby tilted backwards and arms move out after being startled.

Grasping reflex

A primitive reflex where the baby grasps objects placed in their hand.

Babinski reflex

Stroke foot and the baby's toes will stretch then curl.

Cognitive development

How children acquire knowledge.

Piaget

Theory of cognitive stages; how the mind structures its content and adapts to the environment.

Social development

How infants form attachments and the different attachment and parenting styles.

Schema

Mental categories that children use to understand the world.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into present system of knowledge.

Accommodation

Changing existing schema as a result of new information.

Sensorimotor stage

Cognitive stage from birth to 2 years characterized by looking, sucking, and touching.

Object permanence

Understanding that something continues to exist even when it cannot be seen.

Preoperational stage

Cognitive stage from age 2 to 7 where children are egocentric and engage in animistic thinking.

Egocentric

Only using one's own frame of reference.

Animistic thinking

Attributing life to objects.

Conservation

Understanding that physical properties do not change when appearance changes.

Concrete operations stage

Cognitive stage from age 7 to 11 where children can understand conservation and reversibility.

Reversibility

The idea that a stimulus that has been changed can return to its original state.

Transitivity

Understanding how components in a series are related (if A>B and B>C, then A>C).

Formal operations stage

Cognitive stage from age 11 to adulthood characterized by abstract and systematic reasoning.

Zone of proximal development

The level at which a child can almost perform a task independently.

Scaffolding

Adjusting the amount of support to a child's level of development.

Theory of mind

Understanding of how other people think.

Attachment

Enduring emotional bond between infant and another person.

Harlow's study

Demonstrated that soft contact is important for attachment using Rhesus monkeys.

Strange situation

Ainsworth's study that identified different attachment styles.

Secure attachment

Adult as a secure base from which to explore.

Insecure attachment

Characterized by anxious/ambivalent or avoidant behaviors.

Temperament

The nature of an individual's personality, often influencing behavior and emotional responses.

Stressful home life

A living situation characterized by high levels of stress, which can affect a child's development.

Parenting

The process of raising and nurturing children, influencing their emotional and social development.

Attachment security

A measure of the stability and reliability of the emotional bond between a child and caregiver.

Cognitive competence

The ability of an individual to think, learn, and solve problems effectively.

Deprivation of attachment

The lack of emotional bonding and connection, often resulting in difficulties in social relationships.

Ethological theory

A theory proposed by Bowlby stating that babies have innate behaviors that elicit caregiving from adults.

Attractiveness in infants

The perceived physical appeal of infants, which can influence the level of affection and attention they receive.

Parenting Styles

Different approaches to raising children, characterized by varying levels of warmth and control.

Authoritarian parenting

A style characterized by low warmth and high control, emphasizing obedience and strict rules.

Permissive parenting

A style characterized by high warmth and low control, with few restrictions on the child.

Uninvolved (neglectful) parenting

A style characterized by low warmth and low control, often leading to detrimental effects on the child.

Authoritative parenting

A style characterized by high warmth and high control, promoting a supportive and structured environment.

Moral Development

The process through which individuals develop an understanding of right and wrong.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development

A theory proposing that cognitive capabilities determine the progression of moral reasoning.

Heinz dilemma

A moral dilemma used to illustrate the complexities of moral decision-making.

Preconventional morality

The first stage of moral development, where behavior is driven by the desire to avoid punishment or gain rewards.

Conventional morality

The second stage of moral development, where individuals conform to societal norms and rules.

Postconventional morality

The third stage of moral development, where individuals develop their own principles and conscience.

Delay of gratification

The ability to resist immediate rewards in favor of larger, delayed rewards.

Marshmallow test

An experiment measuring a child's ability to delay gratification by choosing between one immediate reward or two later.

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

A theory outlining eight stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved.

Identity vs confusion

The fifth stage of Erikson's theory, focusing on the development of a stable sense of self during adolescence.

Intimacy vs isolation

The sixth stage of Erikson's theory, emphasizing the importance of forming committed relationships in early adulthood.

Generativity vs stagnation

The seventh stage of Erikson's theory, focusing on contributing to society and future generations during midlife.

Ego integrity

Feeling that one's life has coherence and purpose

Despair

Disappointment, regret

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Model of social activity (Carstensen, 1995)

Old age

Smaller social network

Death anxiety in older adults

Older adults express less anxiety about or fear of death than middle-aged adults

Sensation

Process by which sensory organs obtain information about the environment and transmit it to the brain

Perception

The organization of sensations into interpretations

Transduction

Translation of physical energy into electrical signals

Bottom-up processing

Starts with raw sensory data that gets communicated to the brain

Top-down processing

Starts with observer's expectations and knowledge

Absolute threshold

Minimal amount of stimulation that can be detected half of the time

Difference threshold/just noticeable difference (jnd)

Smallest difference in intensity between 2 stimuli that a person can detect

Weber's law

For 2 stimuli to be perceived as different in intensity, the second must differ from the first by a constant proportion