ALL PSYCH

Phonemes

smallest units recognized as speech, infants recongize for all languages

Phonological Rules

dictate how phonemes are combined, basically phonological constraints

Morphemes

smallest units w/ meaning, can be its on word/combined to make more words

Content Morphemes

things/events, make up telegraphic speech

Functional Morphemes

grammatical purpose/function, link objects/events together

Morphological Rules

dictate how morphemes can be combines, understanding of rules develops over childhood

Syntactic Rules

how words combine into sentences/phrases

Interactionist Theory

biological capacity for language, form/development depend on social development/interaction with language

Broca's Area

speaking words, language production, damage means unable to produce coherent speech

Wenicke's Area

hearing words, language comprehension, damage means unable to understand language

Linguistic Relativity

language shapes thought/experience/perceptions, content of language influences how you experience things (e.g. color perception differs between diff cultures bc different ways of describing color)

Concept

mental representations that categorize/group features, kinda like schemas

Prototype Theory

'the dog-iest dog', object classified by comparison of features to best/most common member, prototype has many/all features associated w/ that category

Exemplar Theory

objects classified byt ALL memories of concept, broader selection of objects to compare w/

Category Specific Deficits

deficits to organization can happened before language development/life experiences, some categorization is affected but not all, prewired categories can adapt to organize/identify other things

Estimation

humans try to predict what will happen/when it will happen

Frequencies

people good @ estimating how many times a thing happens

Probability

people bad @ estimating how likely it is to happen

Framing Effect

how problem is presented/described influence estimations abt that thing

Heuristics

fast/efficient strategies make choosing easy, might not be correct but hey its something

Algorithm

defined process/rules that guarantee a solution, (e.g. walking thru every room till u find the thingy)

Overconfidence

confidence outweighs correctness

Belief Perseverance

holding onto belief and ignoring evidence that it might be incorrect

Survivorship Bias

concentrating on things that pass filter but not what got filtered out

SunkCost Fallacy

decisions based on previous investments

Optimism Bias

thinking ur more likely to experience positive stuff

Prospect Theory

avoiding losses over making gains, taking more risks when less to loose, people w/ prefrontal lobe damage more likely to make riskier decisions

Insights

shift in understanding of problem/processes, 'aha' moment

Incremental Processes

small steps towards an outcome

Spontaneous Reconstructing

sudden shift in understanding, seeing the whole problem instead of small bits

Means-End Analysis

comparing between current situation and goal, listing steps/means to get closer to goal

Direct Means

something that can fix problem right away

Subgoal

next step as a smaller goal, stepping stones

Analogical

looking at solution to a similar problem to see if it can solve current problem, can yield new ideas!

Argument Validity

how accurate information supporting statement is

Reasoning

mental activity, organizing info/beliefs into steps to a conclusion

Belief Bias

judging acceptance of conclusions based on how believable conclusions are

Syllogistic Reasoning

conclusions of relatedness between concepts, not always true/correct, (e.g. A relates to B, B relates to C, A should relate C)

Illusory Truth

repeated exposure to statement means more likely to believe it, familiarity is mistaken to be evidence

Top-down

preexisting info influences perception/processing of new information

Bottom-up

sensory analysis starts at entry level, info flows to areas w/ higher processing

Schemas

organized/interpret new info using previous experience as a guide, processes ambiguous interpretations/information

Encoding

process of transforming info received by senses into lasting memory

Semantic Encoding

focusing on the meaning of items/thinking deeper abt info, inferior frontal lobe

Visual Imagery

placing information in visual scene, info associated w/ specific part of area, occipital lobe

Organizational Encoding

finding relationships between items to easily remember them, superior frontal lobe

Sensory Memory

record info particular to sense, held for less than a second, direct attention holds memory for a lil longer, Iconic for images, Echoic for sound

Working Memory

aka. Short Term, active matienance of info in short-term storage, info retained for 15-20 seconds, capacity varies by age/distractions at time of tasks

Long Term Memory

complex info not stored in one spot, hippocampus indexes/categorizes elements before they move to storage

Patient HM

removed hippocampus for severe epilepsy, retained memories from before surgery but couldn't make any new ones, memory basically reset each day

Consolidation

neural storage of longterm, recalling/thinking/talking abt a memory to strengthen it

Retrograde Amnesia

inability to retrieve memories/info before

Anterograde Amnesia

inability to store new information/make new memories after

Infantile Amnesia

inability to access memories from early childhood, underdeveloped hippocampus means memories less vivid

Source Amnesia

faulty/incomplete memory of where information came from

Retrieval

process of bringing back encoded/stored information, depends on retrieval cues (external info) that trigger memories bc they recreate moment of encoding

Implicit Memory

unconscious memories, related to learning skills

Procedural Memory

learning bc you practiced

Priming

ability to recognize/identify things bc of past exposure

Explicit Memory

memories you can discuss and consciously retrieve

Semantic Memory

things learnt, facts, words, etc.

Episodic

events/episodes distinct in time/place

Transience

forgetting what's happened over time, older memories fade faster

Absentmindedness

laspe in attention causes memory failure

Blocking

failure to retrieve memory while trying to produce it, 'tip of my tongue'

Misattribution

assigning memory to false source, memory's what/when/how has changed

Suggestibility

implanted memories of details/small events, incoporating information from other sources

Bias

rewriting/reframing memories based on current info/events or beliefs about the past

Persistence

emotions make memories stronger, memories associated with extreme reactions last longer

Flashbulb

detailed memory of big event, 'where i was when x happened', often over-exaggerated

Learning

acquisition of new experiences/behaviours influenced by association and consequences

Classical Conditioning

pairing a neutral stimulus (ns) to meaningful event/stimulus (us) to condition a response (cr) to the ns

Extincition

conditioned response decreases overtime if ns/us aren’t presented together

Generalization

stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus (cs) will cause similar effect

Discrimination

ability to distinguish between cs and other stimulus

Relevance

conditioning stronger when cs relevant to environment/subject needs, has genetic/evolutionary componet, e.g. food rewards work better than rocks

Operant Conditioning

using rewards/punishments to modify behaviours

Law of Effect

we do things that have good results, stop doing things that have bad results

Reinforcement

event/thing that rewards a response

Positive

something is given

Negative

something is taken away

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

reinforcement every time a behaviour occurs

Partial Reinforcement

reinforcement part of the time, slower acquisition but harder to lose

Fixed Ratio

reinforcement after every xth behaviour

Fixed Interval

reinforcement after every x hr/min after behaviour

Variable Ratio

after random amount of behaviours

Variable Interval

after random amount of time

Punishment

undesirable consequence to decrease behaviour frequency, usually ends up suppressing behaviour not full extinction

Natural Limits

organisms learn associations naturally occurring/adaptive, usually revert back to original behaviour

Observational Learning

humans/other species learn w/out experience/instruction by watching and replicating behaviours/modelling behaviour on observed

Mirror Neurons

frontal lobe neurons fire when watching someone do something similarly to how they fire when you’re doing it, mirroring action in brain/thoughts

Implicit Learning

independent of awareness, don’t need to actively learn bc it just happens

Hebb Rule

synaptic strength increased by pre/post synaptic neurons active at the same time, neurons change to have more receptors for stronger synapses

LTP

Long Term Potentiation, high intensity/frequency stimulation increases synapse potential, brain retains more information

Sensation

stimulation of sensory organ/collection of sensory information

Perception

organization/interpretation of sensory information

Transduction

converting physical signals from environment to neural signals

Noticeable Difference

smallest change in stimulus that can be detected

Observer's Absolute Threshold

smallest intensity needed to detect stimulus

Signal Detection Theory

how/when we detect stimulus w/ big noise, can distinguish between perceptual sensitivity and criteria for decisions abt stimulus