AP Psychology Topic 6 (Human Development)

Developmental psychology

the scientific study of how people change and grow across the entire lifespan, examining physical, cognitive (thinking, language), and socioemotional (personality, relationships) development from infancy through old age, focusing on patterns, influences (nature vs. nurture), and key stages

zygote

the initial single cell formed at conception when a sperm fertilizes an egg, containing a complete set of genetic information from both parents, beginning a two-week period of rapid cell division before developing into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception until birth, a stage following the zygote and embryo, characterized by significant organ development, brain growth, and increased responsiveness to stimuli like sound, where outside influences (teratogens) can greatly impact its growth. 

teratogens

environmental agents (like drugs, alcohol, chemicals, viruses, or radiation) that can reach a developing embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm, leading to birth defects, developmental abnormalities, or long-term physical and cognitive issues, such as Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

fetal alcohol syndrome

neurodevelopmental disorder caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy, leading to a range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems like intellectual disabilities, learning deficits, facial abnormalities, poor impulse control, and hyperactivity, representing a severe form of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

rooting reflex

an innate, automatic newborn reflex where a baby turns their head and opens their mouth when their cheek or the corner of their mouth is touched, helping them find a nipple for feeding

habituation

simple form of learning where an organism shows a decreased response to a repeated, non-threatening stimulus over time, essentially learning to ignore irrelevant or constant environmental cues to focus on more important things, like getting used to a clock ticking or a new perfume smell

maturation

the genetically programmed, natural unfolding of physical and psychological development, following a predictable sequence of milestones (like walking or talking) that isn't significantly altered by experience or environment, though experience influences when they're achieved

schema

a mental framework or blueprint that helps organize and interpret information, acting as a cognitive shortcut based on prior experiences, beliefs, and knowledge, enabling efficient processing of new situations and influencing perception, memory, and understanding of the world

assimilation

the cognitive process of fitting new information or experiences into existing mental frameworks (schemas)

accommodation

the process of changing or creating new mental schemas (frameworks for understanding) to incorporate new information or experiences that don't fit existing ones, allowing for deeper learning and adaptation, unlike assimilation, where new info is forced into old schemas

cognition

all the mental activities involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, communicating, problem-solving, and decision-making, encompassing how we acquire, process, and use information through processes like attention, memory, language, perception, concept formation, algorithms, heuristics, and insight

sensorimotor stage

the first of Piaget's cognitive development stages, where infants learn about the world primarily through their senses and motor actions, developing key concepts like object permanence (understanding objects still exist when hidden) and basic cause-and-effect understanding through exploration and play

object permanence

the crucial cognitive understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they can't be seen, heard, or touched

preoperational stage

the second of Piaget's cognitive development stages, marked by symbolic thinking (words, images, pretend play) but lacking logical operations, characterized by egocentrism, animism, and difficulty with conservation

conservation

the cognitive milestone (often linked to Jean Piaget's stages) where a child understands that physical properties like mass, number, volume, or area remain the same despite changes in shape, arrangement, or appearance, marking a shift from preoperational to concrete operational thinking

egocentrism

the cognitive inability to understand perspectives other than one's own, common in young children

theory of mind

the cognitive ability to understand that others have their own unique mental states, like beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives, which can differ from one's own reality

autism spectrum

a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by persistent deficits in social communication/interaction and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior/interests, with the "spectrum" reflecting varied severity and presentation (e.g., Asperger's, non-verbal) under a single diagnosis

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage where children develop logical thinking about concrete, tangible events, mastering concepts like conservation (amount stays the same despite shape change) and reversibility, but still struggle with abstract ideas, enabling them to classify, sort, and understand basic math operations

formal operational stage

the fourth and final stage of Piaget's cognitive development (starting around age 12), is characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically and logically, and consider multiple perspectives, moving beyond concrete objects to complex ideas like justice, love, and morality

stranger anxiety

the fear or distress infants commonly show (starting around 8 months) when encountering unfamiliar people

attachment

the deep, enduring emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver

critical period

a specific, limited timeframe in development when the brain is exceptionally sensitive to certain environmental influences, making it crucial for acquiring particular skills (like language or vision) or forming attachments, with experiences during this window having a profound, lasting impact, and missing it often leading to difficulty or permanent deficits in that skill later on

imprinting

the rapid, instinctual learning process where certain animals form a strong, irreversible attachment to the first moving object (often a parent figure) they encounter during a limited, early-life critical period

basic trust

an infant's fundamental belief that the world is predictable and reliable, formed through consistent, responsive caregiving where needs are met, leading to a sense of security and the foundation for healthy relationships

self-concept

your overall understanding and perception of yourself, a collection of beliefs about your attributes, abilities, values, and roles, influencing how you see yourself and interact with the world

adolescence

the transitional period from childhood to adulthood, marked by physical growth (puberty), cognitive leaps (abstract thought), and identity formation, typically occurring from ages 10 to the late teens/early twenties, bridging childhood dependence and adult independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, marking the transition from childhood to adolescence, during which a person becomes capable of reproduction, accompanied by significant hormonal shifts, physical changes (primary/secondary sex characteristics), and associated emotional/social developments like identity formation and abstract thought

primary sex characteristics

the reproductive body structures (like ovaries, testes, and genitalia) present from birth that are directly involved in sexual reproduction, distinguishing males from females

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive physical traits that develop during puberty, distinguishing males from females, like breasts, facial hair, deeper voices, and body/pubic hair, driven by hormones (estrogen, testosterone) and signaling sexual maturity but not directly involved in reproduction

menarche

the crucial developmental milestone marking the first menstrual period in a female, signaling the start of puberty, fertility potential, and a significant physical and psychological transition from childhood to adolescence

identity

an individual’s consistent sense of self, encompassing personal values, beliefs, unique characteristics, and social roles

intimacy

the ability to form close, loving, and emotionally deep relationships

menopause

the natural biological transition marking the end of a woman's menstrual cycles (typically age 45-55), involving a decline in reproductive hormones like estrogen, leading to significant physical changes (hot flashes, sleep issues) and psychological impacts (mood swings, cognitive shifts) as part of adult development

alzheimer’s disease

a progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing dementia, marked by significant decline in memory, thinking, and behavior due to brain changes like amyloid plaques and tau tangles, leading to impairments in memory (amnesia), language (aphasia), motor skills (apraxia), and recognition (agnosia), impacting daily life and independence

cross-sectional study

an observational research method that collects data from different groups (like various ages, backgrounds) at a single point in time, offering a "snapshot" to compare characteristics or developmental stages, rather than tracking the same people over time

longitudinal study

a research method where the same group of individuals (a cohort) is observed and data is collected repeatedly over an extended period, often years or decades, to track developmental changes, patterns, and long-term effects on individuals' behavior, cognition, or health

crystallized intelligence

the accumulated knowledge, facts, vocabulary, and skills gained through experience and education, which tends to increase or remain stable as we age

fluid intelligence

the ability to reason, solve new problems, see relationships, and think abstractly, independent of prior knowledge or learned skills, involving pattern recognition, strategy selection, and rapid information processing

social clock

the culturally defined, unspoken timetable for when major life events (like graduating, marrying, having kids, retiring) are expected to happen, influencing individual self-esteem and stress levels based on conformity to these age-related norms

self

the organized collection of beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes we hold about ourselves

parallel play

a stage of early childhood development where children play alongside each other, using similar toys or materials, but without direct interaction, communication, or shared goals

imaginary audience

a developmental concept describing an adolescent's belief that others are constantly watching, scrutinizing, and judging their appearance, behavior, and actions, even when they aren't present

personal fable

the adolescent's belief in their own uniqueness, specialness, and invincibility, leading them to think their experiences are unlike anyone else's and that they are immune to harm, often resulting in risky behaviors

ecological system theory

explains human development as influenced by interconnected environmental layers, from immediate settings (microsystem like family) to broad cultural contexts (macrosystem like societal values), highlighting how these nested systems interact to shape an individual's growth

microsystem

the innermost layer of Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, referring to the immediate environment where an individual has direct contact, like family, school, peers, and neighborhood, significantly shaping their development through direct, face-to-face interactions and relationships

mesosystem

the interconnections and interactions between different microsystems in an individual's life, like the links between family, school, and peer groups, showing how experiences in one setting influence others and collectively shape development

exosystem

external environments or systems that indirectly affect a person's development, even though the individual isn't a direct participant in them

macrosystem

the broadest cultural and societal influences—like overarching values, beliefs, laws, customs, and economic systems—that shape an individual's development by affecting all other environmental levels

chronosystem

the dimension of time and how patterns of environmental events, transitions, and sociohistorical contexts over an individual's life course influence their development

zones of proximal development

the space between what a learner can do alone (current ability) and what they can achieve with guidance from a more skilled person (potential ability)

scaffolding

a teaching method where a more skilled person (teacher, peer) provides temporary support, guidance, or breaking down tasks to help a learner master a new skill within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

dementia

a significant, progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, severe enough to interfere with daily functioning, often accompanied by personality changes, impacting daily life and independence, and stemming from various brain diseases like Alzheimer's

gender

the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for males and females, distinct from biological sex

spermarche

the term for a male's first ejaculation

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

traumatic events before age 18, like abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction (e.g., substance abuse, mental illness, parental divorce/incarceration), linked to significant health and developmental issues later in life due to "toxic stress" impacting brain development and stress responses