AP Psych Exam

dorothea dix

Played an instrumental role in the founding or expansion of more than 30 hospitals for the treatment of the mentally ill

nature-nurture issue

longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

natural selection

principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

behavioral psychology

scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

cognitive psychology

study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

evolutionary psychology

study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

psychodynamic psychology

branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

psychoanalytic perspective

focus is on the unconscious mind rather than the conscious mind

hindsight bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

case study

descriptive technique in which one individual/group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

cross-sectional research design

research design in which individual of different ages and developmental levels, are compared at a single point in time

longitudinal research design

researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time

meta-analysis

procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

survey

descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

representative sample

subset of a statistical population that accurately reflects the members of the entire population. it should be an unbiased indication of what the population is like

correlation

measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

scatterplot

graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

experiment

research method in which an investigator manipulates on or more factores (i.v) to observe the effect of some behavior or mental process (d.v). by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

experimental group

group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment

control group

group in an experiment that is not exposed to the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone;

independent variable

factor that is manipulated, variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the outcome that is measured, variable that changes when the independent variable is manipulated

mode

most frequently occurring score in a distribution

mean

average of a distribution (adding scores and dividing by the total number of scores)

median

middle score in a distribution

skewed distribution

representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

generalizability

measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations

range

difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean scores

normal curve

symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

informed consent

giving potential participants information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants

right to withdraw

allows a research participant to drop out of a study at any time without penalty

neuron

nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands

myelin sheath

fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons

action potential

neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

reuptake

neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

dopamine

"feel-good" hormone

serotonin

carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and throughout your body

acetylcholine

chemical messenger that helps carry signals across a nerve synapse

agonist

molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

antagonist

molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

nervous system

body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

somatic nervous system

division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus (ex: knee-jerk)

endocrine system

body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

cortisol

stress hormone

pituitary gland

endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

reveals blood-flow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

cerebellum

"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

frontal lobes

lies behind the forehead; involves in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

lies at the back of the head; includes ares that receive information from the visual fields

Wernicke's area

comprehension of speech

Broca's area

producing speech, writing, and also in language processing and comprehension

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

phenotype

observable traits

identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two.

genetically identical organisms

genetically identical to another

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs.

share a prenatal environment

period of development extending from conception to delivery

heritability

proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes

multiple sclerosis

potentially disabling disease of the brain and spinal cord

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams occur. also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed

sleep paralysis

temporary condition in which a person is unable to move upon awakening

sensation

process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention

focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

absolute threshold

minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

signal detection theory

predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (sound). detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

difference threshold

minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, necessary for peripheral and twilight vision (night)

cones

concentrated near the center of the retina and they function in daylight or in well0lit conditions

optic nerve

nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

amplitude

magnitud or strength of a reaction or of a stimulus

gate-control theory

spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pin signals or allows them to pass on to the brain