Period 2 APEURO

Period 2 APEURO

Intendants

Royal officials in France under Louis XIV who controlled provinces, collected taxes, and enforced royal policies.

The Fronde

A series of French civil wars (1648–1653) where nobles and parlements resisted royal authority.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

French finance minister under Louis XIV who strengthened the economy through mercantilism and state-controlled trade.

Balance of power

A diplomatic principle where no single state becomes too powerful, keeping peace through alliances.

Leopold I

Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705) who fought the Ottoman Empire and expanded Habsburg influence.

Frederick William of Hohenzollern, the Great Elector

Prussian ruler who strengthened the military, centralized government, and expanded territory.

Cossacks

Eastern European/Russian horsemen and warriors known for military skill and autonomy from central authority.

Boyars

Russian nobles who held large land estates and advised the tsar.

Tories

In England, the political group supporting the monarchy and Anglican Church.

James II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1685–1688) whose Catholicism and policies led to the Glorious Revolution.

Eli Whitney

American inventor of the cotton gin, revolutionizing cotton processing.

James Watt

Scottish engineer who improved the steam engine, fueling the Industrial Revolution.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote The Wealth of Nations, promoting free markets and capitalism.

Manila galleons

Spanish trade ships that carried goods between the Philippines and Mexico during the colonial period.

Olaudah Equiano

Former enslaved African who wrote an autobiography exposing the horrors of slavery.

Bourgeoisie

The middle/merchant class in Europe, often wealthy but not noble.

Kongo

A central African kingdom active in trade with the Portuguese from the 15th century.

Enclosure

The process of fencing off common land in England for private farming, displacing peasants.

Mass production

The large-scale manufacturing of standardized products, often using machines.

Romanov family

Dynasty that ruled Russia from 1613 to 1917.

Salons

Social gatherings, often hosted by women, where Enlightenment ideas were discussed.

Marie-Therese Geoffrin

A leading French salon hostess who supported Enlightenment thinkers.

Rococo

An ornate, decorative art style popular in 18th-century Europe.

The Female Spectator

One of the first periodicals written by women, focusing on morals and society.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Austrian composer known for symphonies, operas, and classical music mastery.

War of Austrian Succession

A conflict (1740–1748) over Maria Theresa’s right to inherit the Habsburg throne.

Catherine the Great

Russian empress who expanded territory, reformed administration, and promoted Enlightenment ideas.

Seven Years’ War

Global conflict (1756–1763) involving Europe, North America, and India, often considered the first “world war.”

Federalist system

A government structure in which power is divided between a central authority and regional states.

Dutch patriots

18th-century Dutch reformers who opposed the power of the stadtholder and supported democratic reforms.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

French Revolutionary law (1790) requiring clergy to swear loyalty to the state rather than the Church.

Jacobins

Radical political club during the French Revolution that led the Reign of Terror.

Sans-culottes

Working-class revolutionaries in France who wore trousers instead of aristocratic knee breeches.

Waterloo

The 1815 battle where Napoleon was finally defeated by British and Prussian forces.

The Three Estates

France’s social divisions

Principia Mathematica

Isaac Newton’s work that formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Bernard de Fontenelle

French writer who popularized science and made it accessible to the public.

Letters on the English

Montesquieu’s work analyzing English government, society, and political freedoms.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher known for empiricism, skepticism, and ideas about human understanding.

Deism

Belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs.

Vindication of the Rights of Women

Mary Wollstonecraft’s book arguing for women’s education and equality.

Original sin

Christian belief that all humans inherit sin from Adam and Eve.

Atheists

People who do not believe in God or gods.

Thomas Hobbes

English philosopher who argued that humans are naturally selfish and need a strong ruler.

Leviathan

Hobbes’ work describing the necessity of a powerful sovereign to maintain order.

Daniel Defoe

English writer, author of Robinson Crusoe and early novels.

Romanticism

Artistic and literary movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism.

George Fox

Founder of the Quakers (Religious Society of Friends).

Pogroms

Organized massacres or attacks against Jews, especially in Eastern Europe.

Masonic lodges

Fraternal organizations of Freemasons, often promoting Enlightenment ideas, charity, and secrecy.