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Maize cultivation

The growing of corn, a staple crop that supported large Native American populations.

Columbian Exchange

The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds after 1492.

Encomienda system

Spanish labor system where colonists received land and Native labor in exchange for Christianizing them.

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

Native American uprising in New Mexico against Spanish rule, temporarily driving the Spanish out.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Spanish priest who advocated for the rights and humane treatment of Native Americans.

Spanish, French, Dutch colonization

Different European colonization styles—Spanish sought gold and conversion, French traded furs, Dutch focused on commerce.

Atlantic World

Interactions among peoples and empires bordering the Atlantic, including trade and cultural exchanges.

Jamestown (1607)

First permanent English settlement in North America, founded for economic reasons in Virginia.

House of Burgesses

The first elected legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in Virginia.

Mayflower Compact

Agreement for self-government signed by the Pilgrims in 1620 before landing at Plymouth.

Puritans / “City upon a Hill”

Religious group seeking to purify the Church of England; aimed to build a model Christian society.

Mercantilism

Economic policy where colonies provide raw materials to the mother country to increase national wealth.

Navigation Acts

British laws that restricted colonial trade to favor England's economic interests.

First Great Awakening

Religious revival movement in the 1730s–40s that emphasized emotional faith and individual salvation.

Bacon’s Rebellion

1676 uprising of Virginia farmers against the governor, exposing tensions between settlers and elites.

King Philip’s War

Conflict between New England colonists and Native Americans, leading to Native resistance being crushed.

French and Indian War (1754–1763)

War between Britain and France over North American territory; led to British debt and colonial unrest.

Proclamation of 1763

British law banning settlement west of the Appalachians to avoid Native conflict after the war.

Stamp Act / Stamp Act Congress

1765 tax on printed materials; colonies protested with the slogan “no taxation without representation.”

Boston Massacre

1770 confrontation where British soldiers killed five colonists, increasing anti-British sentiment.

Boston Tea Party

1773 protest where colonists dumped British tea into Boston Harbor to oppose the Tea Act.

Intolerable Acts

Harsh laws passed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party, including closing Boston Harbor.

Common Sense (Thomas Paine)

Pamphlet urging colonists to support independence from Britain.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Document declaring U.S. independence, listing grievances against King George III.

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. constitution; created a weak central government with limited powers.

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

Law that organized western territories and banned slavery north of the Ohio River.

Shays’ Rebellion

Farmer-led revolt in Massachusetts against high taxes; highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

Meeting to revise the Articles that resulted in the U.S. Constitution.

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists

Debated ratification of the Constitution; Federalists supported strong government, Anti-Federalists wanted states’ rights.

Federalist Papers

Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments to the Constitution protecting individual liberties.

Hamilton’s Financial Plan

Proposed federal assumption of state debts, a national bank, and tariffs to build U.S. credit.

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 protest against Hamilton's whiskey tax; Washington used troops to enforce federal authority.

Washington’s Farewell Address

Urged U.S. neutrality and warned against political parties.

XYZ Affair

French demand for bribes during diplomatic negotiations, sparking anti-French sentiment.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Laws passed by Federalists to silence political opposition and limit immigration.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Jefferson and Madison's response to Alien and Sedition Acts; promoted states’ rights.

Election of 1800

Peaceful transfer of power between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans; called the “Revolution of 1800.”

Marbury v. Madison

Supreme Court case establishing judicial review.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

U.S. bought land from France, doubling its size and expanding westward.

War of 1812

Conflict with Britain over trade, impressment, and frontier issues; ended in stalemate but boosted nationalism.

Hartford Convention

Federalist meeting criticizing the War of 1812; made the party seem unpatriotic.

Era of Good Feelings

Period of national unity during Monroe's presidency with one major political party.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

Admitted Missouri as a slave state, Maine as free, and banned slavery north of 36°30′.

Monroe Doctrine

U.S. policy opposing European colonization in the Western Hemisphere.

Market Revolution

Shift from local to national markets due to transportation, industrial, and communication innovations.

Second Great Awakening

Religious revival promoting moral reform and social activism like abolition and temperance.

Cult of Domesticity

Belief that women should stay home and raise virtuous children; reinforced gender roles.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

First women’s rights convention; issued the Declaration of Sentiments.

Andrew Jackson / Jacksonian Democracy

Expanded voting rights to more white men; supported the “common man.”

Indian Removal Act / Trail of Tears

Law forcing Native Americans west; thousands died during relocation.

Nullification Crisis

South Carolina's attempt to nullify a federal tariff; Jackson enforced federal law.

Whig Party

Political party opposing Jackson; supported federal power and modernization.

Bank War

Jackson’s campaign to destroy the national bank, believing it favored the elite.

Manifest Destiny

Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America.

Mexican-American War

Conflict over Texas and territory; resulted in U.S. acquiring the Southwest.

Wilmot Proviso

Proposal to ban slavery in land gained from Mexico; never passed but fueled sectional tensions.

Compromise of 1850

Admitted California as free, included a strict Fugitive Slave Law, and let states decide slavery.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Allowed popular sovereignty on slavery; led to violence in “Bleeding Kansas.”

Dred Scott v. Sandford

Supreme Court ruled that slaves were property and had no rights; declared Missouri Compromise unconstitutional.

Republican Party

Anti-slavery political party formed in the 1850s.

Election of 1860

Lincoln’s victory prompted Southern secession.

Secession

Southern states left the Union after Lincoln’s election, leading to the Civil War.

Emancipation Proclamation

Lincoln’s 1863 order freeing slaves in Confederate states.

Gettysburg Address

Lincoln’s speech redefining the Civil War as a fight for equality and national unity.

Reconstruction Amendments

13th (abolished slavery), 14th (citizenship), 15th (voting rights for Black men).

Freedmen’s Bureau

Helped former slaves with education, housing, and jobs during Reconstruction.

Black Codes

Southern laws restricting the freedom of African Americans after the Civil War.

Radical Republicans

Faction that pushed for full rights for freed slaves and strict Reconstruction policies.

Sharecropping

Farming system where freedmen worked land for a share of crops, often leading to debt.

Compromise of 1877

Ended Reconstruction in exchange for Hayes becoming president.

Transcontinental Railroad

Railroad connecting the East and West coasts, promoting trade and settlement.

Second Industrial Revolution

Rapid industrial growth in the late 1800s driven by steel, oil, electricity, and railroads.

Andrew Carnegie / Gospel of Wealth

Steel magnate who promoted the idea that the wealthy should give back to society.

John D. Rockefeller

Founder of Standard Oil; used monopolistic practices to dominate the oil industry.

Social Darwinism

Belief that the fittest individuals and businesses would naturally succeed in society.

Knights of Labor / AFL

Early labor unions—Knights accepted all workers; AFL focused on skilled workers and practical goals.

Homestead Act

1862 law giving free land to settlers willing to farm it, encouraging westward expansion.

Dawes Act

Law aimed at assimilating Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual plots.

Indian Wars

Series of conflicts between U.S. forces and Native tribes over land and westward expansion.

Wounded Knee (1890)

Massacre of Lakota Sioux by U.S. troops; marked the end of Native armed resistance.

Political machines (e.g., Tammany Hall)

Urban organizations that provided services in exchange for votes, often corrupt.

Populist Party

Agrarian political movement advocating for currency reform, direct election of senators, and railroad regulation.

Interstate Commerce Act

First federal law to regulate railroads and prevent monopolistic practices.

Sherman Antitrust Act

Law banning trusts and monopolies that restrained trade; initially weak but symbolically important.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Supreme Court decision upholding “separate but equal” segregation laws.

Spanish-American War

1898 conflict where the U.S. gained control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Roosevelt Corollary

Extension of the Monroe Doctrine asserting U.S. right to intervene in Latin America.

Progressive Era reforms

Social and political reforms addressing issues like corruption, labor, women's suffrage, and public health.

Muckrakers

Investigative journalists who exposed societal problems (e.g., Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell).

The Jungle (Upton Sinclair)

Novel exposing unsanitary meatpacking industry; led to food safety laws.

16th–19th Amendments

Progressive amendments (income tax, direct Senate election, Prohibition, women’s suffrage).

Woodrow Wilson / New Freedom

Wilson's program promoting small business and antitrust measures.

WWI / Fourteen Points / League of Nations

Wilson's plan for postwar peace; U.S. never joined the League.

Treaty of Versailles

Treaty ending WWI; punished Germany and established the League of Nations.