Information Processing Vocab

transformation (of bacteria)

The process by which bacteria take up foreign DNA from their environment and incorporate it into their genome.

nucleotide

The basic building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

nucleic acid

A polymer of nucleotides; DNA and RNA are examples, responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A nucleic acid that stores genetic information using a sequence of nucleotides; contains deoxyribose sugar and bases A, T, C, G.

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A nucleic acid involved in gene expression; contains ribose sugar and bases A, U, C, G.

ribose

A five-carbon sugar found in RNA.

deoxyribose

A five-carbon sugar found in DNA, lacking one oxygen atom compared to ribose.

nitrogenous base

A molecule containing nitrogen that forms part of a nucleotide; includes A, T, C, G, or U.

adenine (A)

A purine nitrogenous base that pairs with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA.

guanine (G)

A purine nitrogenous base that pairs with cytosine in both DNA and RNA.

cytosine (C)

A pyrimidine nitrogenous base that pairs with guanine in DNA and RNA.

thymine (T)

A pyrimidine nitrogenous base in DNA that pairs with adenine.

uracil (U)

A pyrimidine nitrogenous base in RNA that replaces thymine and pairs with adenine.

phosphate group

A chemical group consisting of phosphorus and oxygen atoms; links nucleotides together in nucleic acids.

hydroxyl group

A chemical group consisting of an oxygen and hydrogen (-OH); found on sugars in nucleotides.

phosphodiester bond

A covalent bond that links the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the hydroxyl group of another, forming the backbone of DNA/RNA.

complementary

Describes DNA or RNA strands where specific bases pair according to base-pairing rules (A-T/U, G-C).

base pair

Two nitrogenous bases held together by hydrogen bonds in a DNA or RNA molecule.

antiparallel

Refers to the orientation of the two strands of DNA, running in opposite 5' → 3' directions.

DNA replication

The process by which DNA makes an exact copy of itself before cell division.

origin of replication (ORI)

The specific sequence where DNA replication begins.

chromosome

A single, long DNA molecule containing many genes, often packaged with proteins.

replication bubble

A region of unwound DNA where replication is actively occurring.

replication fork

The Y-shaped region at each end of a replication bubble where new DNA strands are being synthesized.

RNA primer

A short RNA sequence that provides a starting point for DNA polymerase during replication.

DNA helicase

An enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix at the replication fork.

DNA polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands using the original strand as a template.

DNA ligase

An enzyme that joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds.

proofreading (property of DNA polymerase)

The ability of DNA polymerase to correct errors during replication to ensure high fidelity.

gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a functional product, usually a protein or RNA molecule.

genome

The complete set of genetic material in an organism.

gene expression

The process by which information in a gene is used to produce a functional product, such as RNA or protein.

messenger RNA (mRNA)

RNA that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

promoter

A DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.

terminator

A DNA sequence that signals the end of transcription.

coding region

The portion of a gene that contains the sequence to be translated into protein.

coding strand

The DNA strand whose sequence matches the mRNA (except T instead of U).

template strand

The DNA strand used by RNA polymerase to synthesize mRNA.

cap

A modified nucleotide added to the 5' end of eukaryotic mRNA for protection and initiation of translation.

poly(A) tail

A string of adenine nucleotides added to the 3' end of eukaryotic mRNA for stability and export.

splicing (of mRNAs)

The removal of non-coding sequences (introns) from pre-mRNA to produce mature mRNA.

codon

A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid.

unambiguous (property of genetic code)

Each codon codes for only one amino acid.

redundant (property of genetic code)

Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid.

start codon

The codon (usually AUG) that signals the start of translation.

stop codon

A codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) that signals the termination of translation.

reading frame

The sequence of codons in mRNA read in the correct grouping of three nucleotides.

tRNAs

Transfer RNAs that carry amino acids to the ribosome and match codons in mRNA via their anticodon.

anticodon

A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that is complementary to a codon in mRNA.

ribosomes

Cellular structures composed of RNA and proteins that carry out protein synthesis.

mutation

A permanent change in the DNA sequence.

substitution mutation

A mutation where one nucleotide is replaced by another.

silent mutation

A mutation that does not change the amino acid sequence of a protein.

missense mutation

A mutation that changes a codon to one that codes for a different amino acid.

nonsense mutation

A mutation that changes a codon to a stop codon, terminating translation prematurely.

frameshift mutation

A mutation caused by insertions or deletions that shift the reading frame of the mRNA.