Environmental Final

Tragedy of the Commons

the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain

ecological footprint

Area of land and water needed to produce the resources a person or population uses, plus the amount needed to dispose of their water.

What is environmental science?

the study of how the natural world works, how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment

systematic process

for learning about the world and testing our understanding of it

* A dynamic process of observation, testing, and discovery

body of knowledge

research that has already been conducted

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Manipulative experiment

an experiment in which the researcher actively chooses and manipulates the independent variable (strongest)

Natural or correlational experiments

\-Show real-world complexity

\-Results are not so neat and clean, so answers aren't simply black and white

\-weakest

Scientific Process

Peer review, publication, and debate are parts of the larger scientific process

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

paradigm

a dominant view; may shift if new results show old results or assumptions to be wrong

Ethics

the branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human affairs

Economics

how to use scarce resources to provide goods and services

Ethics + Economics

\-Both deal with how we value and perceive our environment

\-These decisions are influenced by a set of factors:

\-culture

\-worldview

\-our decisions and actions

\-values

\-personal experiences

ethical standards

criteria that help differentiate right from wrong

Environmental ethics

the study of ethical questions regarding human interactions with the environment

Antropocentric worldview

Human-centered, in sustainable development, anthropocentric refers to ideas that focus solely on the needs of people without considering the creatures with whom we share the planet or the ecosystems upon which we depend.

biocentric worldview

A worldview that holds that humans are just one of many species on Earth, all of which have equal intrinsic value.

ecocentric worldview

a worldview that places equal value on all living organisms and the ecosystems in which they live

Environmental view of economic activity

environmental economists see the human economy as within the environment, receiving resources and services from it

Goods

natural resources are "goods" we get from our environment

ecosystem services

services nature performs for free including:

\-soil formation

\-water purification

\-climate regulation

\-pollination

\-nutrient cycling

\-waste treatment

\-growing plants

and more

Adam Smith

Believed competition between people free to pursue their own economic self-interest will benefit society as a whole (assuming rule of law, private property, competitive markets)

neoclassical economics

economic theories and approaches that studies how people make decisions to allocate resources like time, labor, and money in order to maximize their personal benefit

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

supply (business) and demand (households or consumers)

an economic concept that states that the price of a good rise and falls depending on how many people want it (demand) and depending on how much of the good is available (supply)

internal costs

the costs of a market activity paid by an individual participant

external costs

the costs of a market activity paid by people who are not participants

economic theory

a simplification of economic reality used to make predictions about the real world

Environmental costs are hard to...

quantify compared to economic benefits, so may skew the an

In policy debates...

costs and benefits may be misrepresented by failing to distinguish between current and future costs/benefits

Resources are infinite or substitutable

\-some certainty can be replaced

\-others are nonrenewable

Costs and benefits are internal

\-in many situations the costs and benefits of a transaction may affect other members of society...

\-...and those cost (externalities) then are paid by others who were not part of the original transaction

examples include:

\-human health problems

\-property damage

Policy

a set of plans + principles to address problems and guide decision making in specific instances

Public policy

consists of laws, regulations, orders, incentives, and practices designed to advance societal welfare

Environmental policy

pertains to human interactions with environment and generally aims to regulate resource use or pollution to promote human welfare and/or protect natural systems

\-addresses issues of equity and resource use

\-ensues that some people d not harm others while benefiting from common resources

\-prevents overexploitation of public resources (tragedy of commons)

\-prevents free riders by ensuing through enforcement of taxation

Food wastage

Represents excess production or deficit consumption.. When we waster food, we waste the energy, water, harvest, transportation, and packaging it takes to make it

1st wave of environmental policy

Laws enacted from the 1780's to the late 1800's which were accompanied by the westward expansion of the nation. Intended mainly to promote settlement and extraction and use of the continents abundant natural resources.

2nd wave of environmental policy

laws to manage our natural resources; conservation and preservation and to address impacts of 1st wave

\-creation of national parks

\-creation of national forests

\-soil conservation policy

\-Wilderness act, 1964

3rd wave of environmental policy

Modern environment activism and policy arose in response to pollution and other problems (failures to second wave)

\-silent spring

\-earth day

\-EPA and NPA signed by president Nixon

EPA

\-conduct and evaluate research

\-monitor environmental policy

\-set and enforce standards

\-assists states in meeting standards

\-educate public

NEPA

created the council on Environmental Quality and mandated environmental impact statements for public projects and has:

\-prioritized understanding our impacts on the environment

\-slowed down or prevented environmentally destructive development

command-and-control policy

regulatory strategy where government sets a requirement and then enforces individual and corporate actions to be consistent with meeting the requirement.

Subsidies

a sum of money granted by the government or a public body to assist an industry or business so that the price of a commodity or service may remain low or competitive.

Green taxes

taxes on environmentally harmful activities and products

Marketable permits

firms can buy/sell/trade permits to emit certain amounts of pollutants

Environmental justice

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

environmental justice- pollution

People of lower classes tend to be of greater exposition to pollution due to where they live or work

pollution and transportation issues

Air pollution emitted from transportation contributes to smog, and to poor air quality, which has negative impacts on the health and welfare of U.S. citizens.

Ecosystem Interactions

An ecosystem is the interactions between living and non-living things in a particular environment. An ecosystem is a place where these interactions occur, such as a rotting log, or a forest. All organisms and parts within this place are interacting all the time and adjustments must occur if the organism is to survive.

Ecosystem competition

In ecosystems, organisms compete for the resources they need to survive, grow, and reproduce. Animals compete for air, food, shelter, water, and space. Plants also compete with each other for the resources they need, including air, water, sunlight, and space.

food webs/chains

A food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation of what eats what in an ecological community. Another name for the food web is a consumer-resource system.

role of predators

1. regulating prey species.
2. Increasing biodiversity
3. prey pop genetically fit
4. food for scavengers

ecological pyramid

a diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter within each trophic level in a food chain or food web

habitat

the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism.

niche

An organism's particular role in an ecosystem, or how it makes its living.

specialization

The specific task and skills that an individual contributes to the division of labor.

biomes and climate- temp&precipitation

climate determines plant growth, it also influences the number and variety of other organisms in a terrestrial biome. Biodiversity generally increases from the poles to the equator. It is also usually greater in more humid climates

climatographs

A climograph is a graphical representation of a location's basic climate. Climographs display data for two variables: (a) monthly average temperature and (b) monthly average precipitation. These are useful tools to quickly describe a location's climate.

Where are major biomes?

temperate deciduous forest, temperate grasslands, and cold deserts

ecosystem restoration

the repair of natural habitats back to their original state

Altitude + latitude effects on climate

There is a relationship between latitude and temperature around the world, as temperatures are typically warmer approaching the Equator and cooler approaching the Poles. There are variations, though, as other factors such as elevation, ocean currents, and precipitation affect climate patterns.

How does latitude and altitude affect biomes?

As latitude and altitude increase, biomes and vegetation change. Trees of tropical rainforests usually grow closer to the equator, while mosses and lichen of the tundra grow closer to the poles.

Dendrochronology

study of tree rings

Tree rings...

are long-lived organisms that sequester Carbon into their bodies as they grow during each year's growing season(s), usually in a new layer just under the bark

Earlywood and latewood

\-every tree makes earlywood(Apr-May)

\-if no earlywood is made then the tree is dying that year

\-if no rain, latewood (Jun-July) is not made

Camera Trapping

Use of remotely triggered cameras that automatically take images of whatever walks in front of them as a way of monitoring wildlife

topographic maps

Maps that use isolines to represent constant elevations. If you took a topographic map out into the field and walked exactly along the path of an isoline on your map, you would always stay at the same elevation.

eutrophication and nutrients

Eutrophication is a natural process that results from the accumulation of nutrients in lakes or other bodies of water. Algae that feed on nutrients grow into unsightly scum on the water surface, decreasing recreational value and clogging water-intake pipes.

Dead Zone Gulf of Mexico

Pollution from the Mississippi River is water basin is responsible for the dead zone.

Carbon cycle

The organic circulation of carbon from the atmosphere into organisms and back again

Nitrogen cycle

The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere

Phousphorus Cycle

a biogeochemical process that involves the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Human influences on cycles

Carbon: Burning fossil fuels, changing land use, and using limestone to make concrete all transfer significant quantities of carbon into the atmosphere.

Nitrogen: Burning fossil fuels, application of nitrogen-based fertilizers and other activities can dramatically increase the amount of biologically available nitrogen in an ecosystem.

Phosphorus: Humans greatly influence the phosphorus cycle by releasing mined phosphates into ecosystems, especially in the form of fertilizers, but also from detergents and sewage waste.

Circular economy

a model of production and consumption, which involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing and recycling existing materials and products as long as possible. In this way, the life cycle of products is extended. In practice, it implies reducing waste to a minimum.

Linear economy

an economy which goes only in one direction where waste is not recycled

How are circular + linear economies similar to biogeo cycles?

Because in the economy, products are reused and repaired. In the cycle, biodegradable materials are returned to earth through processes like composting.

Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.

Watersheds are defined by

drainage divides

urban stormwater issues

Uncontrolled stormwater runoff has many cumulative impacts on humans and the environment including: Flooding - Damage to public and private property. Eroded Streambanks - Sediment clogs waterways, fills lakes, reservoirs, kills fish and aquatic animals. Widened Stream Channels - Loss of valuable property.

Beavers and stream restoration

Beavers continue the stream restoration process by building their own dams, often on top of the BDA's. The riparian corridor becomes a lush and healthy ecosystem that attracts all sorts of species. Biodiversity again flourishes, and the stream restoration process is successful.

Hurricanes

eye =wind going in both directions then going upward

Driving powers:

\-warm water tempuratures

\-wind increases evaporation into storm

\-spirals inward

\-bigger storms over water due to air current (land= losses power)

Biodiversity

the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

Biodiversity is measured by...

Richness = The number of groups of genetically or functionally related individuals.

Evenness = Proportions of species or functional groups present on a site.

Shannon Diversity Index

A formula for quantifying diversity that takes both species richness and species evenness into account; based on a mathematical expression of the certainty with which the next item sampled in a series can be predicted.

Shannon diversity index steps

Calculate the proportion (pi) of each species - divide the number of individuals in a species by the total number of individuals in the community.

For each species, multiply the proportion by the logarithm of the proportion.

Sum all the numbers from step 2.

Multiply sum by -1.

range of tolerance

the limits to the abiotic conditions that a species can tolerate

range of tolerance- limits on species geography

The most recognizable limitations to the geographic distribution of a species include insurmountable physical barriers, such as mountains, oceans, rivers, deserts, and, more recently, expansive human development.

invasive species

Invasive plant species spread quickly and can displace native plants, prevent native plant growth, and create monocultures. A healthy plant community has a variety of herbs, shrubs, and trees. Invasive plants cause biological pollution by reducing plant species diversity.

Succession

A series of predictable and orderly changes within an ecosystem over time.

Succession causes

The main causes of ecological succession include the biotic and climatic factors that can destroy the populations of an area. Wind, fire, soil erosion and natural disasters include climatic factors.

Succession effects of disturbance

Large, extreme disturbances such as volcanic eruptions or glacier retreat result in very slow succession due to complete mortality of all living individuals in the system, as well as loss of the entire soil complex.

Migration causes

Animal migration is the large-scale movement of a species from one place to another. Most species migrate during specific seasons, in search of food or water, or for mating reasons.

Migration example

For example, salmon start life in rivers and migrate to the sea to feed and grow. After spending up to seven years in the ocean, they migrate back to the rivers they were born in so that they can spawn.

Specialists species

Species with a narrow ecological niche. They may be able to live in only one type of habitat, tolerate only a narrow range of climatic and other environmental conditions, or use only one type or a few types of food.

Bottleneck

A population bottleneck is an event that drastically reduces the size of a population. The bottleneck may be caused by various events, such as an environmental disaster, the hunting of a species to the point of extinction, or habitat destruction that results in the deaths of organisms.

Natural selection process

Natural selection is the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change. Individuals in a population are naturally variable, meaning that they are all different in some ways. This variation means that some individuals have traits better suited to the environment than others.

speciation

the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

\-need habitats that are stable