ANT100 ARCH 11

What is domestication?

• A long, historically contingent process involving relationships between people, plants, and animals

• Occurs differently across various times and places, with some similarities but important differences

• No inevitability of farming; many societies did not transition to it

Why does domestication occur?

• No single explanation; theories include:

  • Crises pushing people to domesticate plants and animals

  • Abundance of wild resources enabling domestication

What are other relationships with plants and animals besides domestication?

• Hunting, gathering, and fishing

• Cultivating wild plants (e.g., fire-stick farming in Australia)

• Managing wild animals and landscapes (e.g., fish pens, enhancing forest soil)

How can managing wild plants and animals provide a secure food supply?

• By transforming habitats to encourage the growth of desired plants and animals

• Techniques include gardening, fish pens, and soil enhancement

Which regions are the Northwest Coast Indigenous nations in?

Oregon, Canada, and Alaska

What are the main features of Northwest Coast Indigenous nations?

• Managed wild resources despite being hunter-gatherers

• Fish, especially anadromous fish, were central to their economy and culture

What are anadromous fish, and why were they important?

• Fish born in freshwater, migrate to the ocean, then return to freshwater to spawn

• Easily trapped when they return to natal streams

• Basis for storage economy and a key source of wealth

What was the social structure of Northwest Coast Indigenous nations?

• Pronounced social inequality with nobles, commoners, and enslaved individuals

• Houses or lineages served as the basis for social, political, and economic organization

• Houses owned rights to lands, foods, and property

What resources did Northwest Coast Indigenous nations manage?

• Fishing locations, clam gardens, and forest gardens

• Recent research shows these gardens improved ecosystems

• Runoff from modern activities harms these gardens

How did wealth support specialists in Northwest Coast societies?

• Wealth from fishing and resource management enabled specialists such as:

  • Artists

  • Builders of monumental architecture

What role did monumental architecture play in Northwest Coast societies?

• Likely related to seasonal fishing and storage activities

• Demonstrated social organization and resource control

Archaeobotany macroscopic remains

Seeds, nuts, and grains that are preserved and visible to the naked eye

Archaeobotany microscopic remains

Starch grains and phytoliths, unique to specific plants, left by cutting, cooking, or processing

Zooarchaeology remains

• Analysis of animal bones and collagen for species identification.

• Testing DNA in soils to detect traces of animals.

• Comparison of wild vs. domesticated animal traits (e.g., size, shape)

What is the difference between wild and domesticated grains?

Domesticated grains often show changes in size, shape, and structure compared to their wild counterparts.

What tools do archaeologists use to analyze plant remains?

• Macroscopic tools for large remains like seeds and nuts.

• Microscopic analysis for starch grains and phytoliths, which are specific to plants.

How do archaeologists study ancient animals?

• Examine bones for domestication traits.

• Test collagen in bones for species data.

• Analyze DNA in soils for traces of past animal presence.

What are phytoliths, and why are they significant in archaeology?

• Microscopic silica structures found in plant cell walls.

• Silica is deposited as the plant absorbs water.

• Unique to each plant species, aiding in identification.

• Found in soils and hearths, providing evidence of plant use.

Wild grasses

• Shattering rachis (easily disperses seeds).

• Smaller seeds.

Domesticated grasses

• Tough rachis (retains seeds).

• Larger seeds.

Rachis

Where the grain attaches to the stalk

How can archaeologists identify domesticated animals?

Domesticated animals generally show:

• Smaller size and reduced robustness.

• Reduction in horns.

• Increased docility.

What is urbanism, and what are its key characteristics?

• The process of places becoming cities.

• Requires:

  • Aggregation/agglomeration (people gathering in dense settlements).

  • Agriculture for abundant, cheap calories.

  • Centralized power and authority (varies by location).

What is the relationship between urbanism and agriculture?

• Agriculture is essential for cities to develop.

• Cities require a steady, large-scale food supply.

• Urbanism is not inevitable and depends on specific conditions.

How long ago did the Natufians live?

15,000-11,000 years ago

Where did the Natufians live?

Southwest Asia

Natufians characteristics

• Hunter-gatherers focused on wild plants and animals.

• Managed landscapes with controlled burns.

• Transitioned from semi-sedentary to fully sedentary settlements.

What were Natufian settlements like?

• Circular, semi-subterranean stone and/or thatch dwellings.

• Sub-floor burials, an old tradition (~20,000 years).

• Featured grinding stones, mortar, and pestles for wild grain processing.

• Storage pits for grains.

• Roasting/baking ovens (no pottery).

What tools did Natufians use for grain harvesting?

Bladelets and sickles

• Used to harvest grains just before ripening to prevent seed dropping.

Bladelets (Natufian tools)

Small, sharp microblades.

Sickles (Natufian tools)

Wood or bone handles with grooves for inserting bladelets

How did Natufians hunt gazelles?

• Focused on gazelles as a key resource.

• Used controlled burns to enhance gazelle habitats.

• Settled near gazelle migration paths to avoid traveling far for hunting.

Where was Abu Hureyra, and when is it dated to?

Located in Jordan; dates to ~13.5 KYA.

What was Abu Hureyra, a Natufian settlement, like?

• Featured ~12 houses with stone foundations and thatched walls.

• Evidence of repair and maintenance, indicating revisits.

• Sub-floor burials and storage for wild cereals (wheat, barley) and nuts.

• Temporary abandonment during the Younger Dryas (cold snap), likely due to resource scarcity.

What environmental adaptation did Natufians demonstrate?

• Adjusted settlement patterns due to environmental changes (e.g., Younger Dryas).

• Increased mobility during resource shortages.

• Returned to Abu Hureyra as conditions improved.

What was Shubayqa 1 in Jordan known for?

• Harvested wild plants: grains, tubers, legumes.

• Produced bread-like products dating to 14.5 KYA, the oldest evidence for bread.

• Associated with a roasting oven, predating farming.

What characterizes the domestication process in the Middle East?

• Occurred within relatively sedentary contexts.

• Knowledge of harvesting, processing, and storing grains existed before domestication.

• People were settled before domesticating plants and animals.

When was the Pre-Pottery Neolithic-A (PPN-A)?

Timeframe: 12,000–10,500 years ago

What is the Pre-Pottery Neolithic-A (PPN-A)?

• Relied on wild plants and animals despite settled lifestyles.

• Characterized by larger settlements.

What is significant about Abu Hureyra during the PPN-B period (10.5–8.7 KYA)?

• Transition to farming settlement with 5,000–6,000 people.

• Architectural changes: public spaces on rooftops, roof-top entrances, sub-floor burials.

• Evidence of the first domesticated plants: wheat, barley, and legumes.

• Increased grain harvesting and abundance of groundstone tools.

When did domesticated animals appear in the Middle East?

• Ca. 8,000 years ago.

• Evidence includes animal pens and domesticated animal bones.

• Transition from PPN-B to PPN-C.

Where is Çatalhöyük?

Located in modern-day Turkey

When was Çatalhöyük occupied?

An early farming site, occupied over 9,000–8,000 years ago.

What is Çatalhöyük known for?

Known for its agglomerated housing with public spaces and rooftop entrances.

What architectural features define Çatalhöyük?

• Rooftop entrances with interconnected housing.

• Subfloor burials and bucrania (cattle horns) embedded in walls.

• Regular maintenance, such as whitewashing walls.

What do we know about Çatalhöyük's society?

• No evidence of houses for elites, temples, or shrines.

• Egalitarian society with no centralized economic activity.

• Household-based economy, likely trading with other communities.

What ritual activities occurred in Çatalhöyük?

• Ritual and secular activities were integrated within households.

• Subfloor burials located beneath sleeping platforms.

• Artistic expressions and ritual objects embedded in everyday spaces.

How does Çatalhöyük illustrate the domestication process?

• Demonstrates a long domestication process spanning thousands of years.

• Farming and animal pens were part of daily life.

• Settlements reflected gradual transitions in subsistence and lifestyle.

Where did the earliest cities develop?

• Mesopotamia, meaning "land between rivers."

• Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

What made Mesopotamia suitable for early urbanization?

• Annual river flooding deposited fertile sediments, ideal for farming.

• Fertile soils enabled agricultural surplus.

• Irrigation systems controlled flooding and directed water to fields.

What natural resource challenges did Mesopotamia face?

• Lack of local stone for tools and construction.

• Reliance on trade to import stone and other materials.

When did urbanization begin in Mesopotamia?

Around 7,000 years ago during the Ubaid period.

What were the key features of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia?

• Temple centers acted as early urban hubs.

• Region-wide belief systems connected temple centers.

• Elites controlled rituals, trade, and irrigation systems.

Why was irrigation important in Mesopotamia?

• Allowed control of water resources for agriculture.

• Enabled the storage and distribution of grain.

• Contributed to the power of temple centers.

Was there a settlement hierarchy in the Ubaid period?

• No evidence of a hierarchy among settlements.

• No single center dominated or controlled others.

What is Eridu, and why is it significant?

• An early temple center in Mesopotamia.

• Mentioned in Babylonian mythology as the place where kingship was given to people by the gods.

• Represents the emergence of institutions allowing individuals to rule over non-relatives.

What societal shift occurred at Eridu?

• Transition from household-based organization to centralized authority.

• Temples became centers of power where rulers governed others.

When did city-states emerge in Mesopotamia?

Around 6,000 years ago during the Uruk period.

What was the first city in Mesopotamia?

Uruk, with a population of 20,000–40,000 people.

What is the significance of Uruk?

• The first known city with a settlement hierarchy.

• Exercised authority over smaller towns and cities.

• Featured a Ziggurat, a prominent temple structure.

What were the three main institutions of authority in Mesopotamia?

1. Ziggurat: Religious authority.

2. Palace: Administrative and governance center.

3. City-ruler (Ensi): Chosen by the city council, not inherited.

What role did the city council play in early Mesopotamian cities?

• Composed of elites.

• Limited the power of the Ensi (city ruler).

• Chose the Ensi; kingship was not hereditary initially.

When did inherited kingship develop in Mesopotamia?

Around 4,000 years ago, kingship became hereditary.

What was the "ruralization" of the Mesopotamian countryside?

• 80% of the population lived in cities during the Uruk period.

• Farmers commuted to rural fields from urban centers.

• Trackways connected cities and farmlands.

What were examples of specialists in Mesopotamian cities?

• Builders and maintainers of irrigation systems.

• Craft producers (e.g., pottery, bronze workers).

• Scribes.

• Farmers.

What are bevel-rimmed bowls, and why are they significant?

• Standardized bowls theorized to be used for distributing rations.

• Alternatively, used as bread molds.

• Disposable, like the "paper plates" of Mesopotamia.

Where and when was Cuneiform invented?

Invented in Uruk around 5,200 years ago.

What is Cuneiform?

• The oldest known writing system.

• Written using a stylus on wet clay, then hardened and sometimes fired.

What was Cuneiform used for?

• Writing many languages.

• Administrative records, literature, laws, recipes, prescriptions, letters, etc.

What is the significance of Hammurabi’s Code?

• One of the first legal codes written down (about 3,800 years ago).

• It contained rules on marriage, taxation, and other aspects of society.

What is the Epic of Gilgamesh?

One of the oldest written epics, recorded in Cuneiform.

How did Cuneiform evolve?

• It became more abstract over time.

• Used by about a dozen languages.

What were the ruling elites like in ancient Mesopotamian cities?

• Cities were ruled by power elites.

• For example, Pu-Abi in Ur (around 4,500 years ago) had metals, stone from distant regions, and lavish tombs.

What was the significance of tombs in ancient Mesopotamia?

• Tombs contained signs of wealth, including items from distant places.

• Some tombs contained evidence of human sacrifice, illustrating elite power.

When and where was Mehrgarh?

A settlement in the Indus Valley dating to around 8,500 years ago.

What is Mehrgarh?

Early evidence of farming Middle Eastern plants and raising animals.

What is the Harappan period, and when did it occur?

• Lasted from 4,600 to 3,900 years ago.

• City-states developed along the Indus River.

What is significant about the Indus River in ancient civilization?

• The river was powerful and unpredictable, fed by melting snow from the Himalayas.

• Floods deposited fertile silts, crucial for agriculture.

What role did water control play in the development of city-states in the Indus Valley?

Control of water was essential for agriculture and may have contributed to the rise of city-states.

What happened to a second river near the Indus Valley?

A river near the region dried up, affecting the landscape and water sources.

What was the nature of power in Harappan cities?

• Elites controlled water systems and large-scale agricultural surplus.

• Long-distance trade played a crucial role in their economy.

• The Indus Valley was referred to as "Meluha" in Mesopotamian texts.

• Religion may have been important, but possibly controlled differently than in Mesopotamia.

What is Mohenjo-Daro, and when did it peak?

• The largest city-state of the Harappan civilization.

• Dates back 4,000-5,000 years, with its peak during this time.

• Known for its advanced urban planning and public infrastructure.

What were some of the features of Mohenjo-Daro?

• Series of neighborhoods and compounds.

• Craft specialists, multi-storied residences, and markets.

• Advanced waste management system with latrines and wells.

• Emphasis on hygiene, with waste being taken out of the city.

What is the Acropolis in Mohenjo-Daro?

• A central area with public works and elite residences.

• No palaces, but publicly accessible monumental architecture.

• Merchants controlled trade and manufacturing, with standardized weights in workshops.

What is the significance of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro?

• Located just outside the Acropolis in an elite area.

• The earliest public water tank in the world, designed to hold water.

• Closely fitted bricks and bitumen residue made it watertight.

• Likely used for public religious ceremonies or other social functions.

What was the role of elites in Mohenjo-Daro, despite not having grand tombs?

• Elites may have orchestrated labor but did not seek immense tombs or monumental burial practices.

• Their control over the city's labor force was likely a key element of their power.

What were the granaries in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro used for?

• The function of the granaries is unclear, as there is little evidence for bureaucracy or administration.

• They are believed to have been used for storage but may not have held grain.

What do we know about rulers in the Indus Valley?

• Little is known due to the inability to fully translate their texts.

• Administration seems to have involved some form of standardization, especially in weights, but it's unclear who was responsible.

• Seals, often used in trade, feature 7-8 symbols and a figure.

What are some notable features of Indus Valley elite power?

• There are no monumental structures like palaces or large tombs to signify elite power.

• Few grave goods were found in cemeteries, suggesting a "practical" attitude toward the afterlife.

• This could imply a restriction on the accumulation of wealth and elite power.

Could the lack of monumental elite symbols in the Indus Valley indicate a political system?

• Possible that competing lineages or a city council selected leaders, limiting the concentration of power.

• Unlike Mesopotamia, where power was centralized, the Indus Valley may have had a more distributed political structure.

What is the "Priest King" statue, and why is it significant?

• The "Priest King" is a famous statue, but its exact role and significance remain unclear.

• It highlights the different ways cities can be organized, indicating that elite power doesn't always need to be concentrated in the hands of a few individuals.

What was the role of acorns and pottery in Northeast China?

• Pottery used to process large quantities of acorns, encouraging settled life.

• Early pottery appeared around 20 KYA, and grinding stones were used as early as 28 KYA.

• Acorn processing was central to the culture, and boiling methods were used, unlike the roasting methods in the Middle East.

What does the domestication of plants and animals look like in Northeast China?

• Millet was the first domesticated plant around 10 KYA in the Yellow River region.

• Rice farming began around 9000 years ago in the Yangtze River, starting in small sedentary villages.

• Pigs were domesticated around 8000 years ago, marking a shift in agricultural practices.

What is the significance of the Erlitou period in the development of urbanism in China?

• Erlitou, dating from 3900 to 3500 years ago, was one of the earliest city-states, previously seen as the Xia Dynasty's beginning.

• The city had a walled urban area with a palace zone and workshops producing goods for elites.

• Evidence shows a population of about 30,000 at its peak, with a four-tiered settlement hierarchy and elaborate elite burial practices.

How was power and labor organized in Erlitou?

• Labor control was crucial, as construction involved rammed earth platforms for palaces, requiring significant manpower.

• Artifacts such as bronze and turquoise were produced in workshops for the elite, indicating the importance of prestige goods in maintaining social hierarchy.

• The existence of ritual districts and palace complexes reflects the centralization of power in Erlitou city-state.

What is pastoralism in West Africa?

Developed around 5000 years ago, incorporating domesticated animals into mobility practices.

What plants were domesticated in West Africa?

Sorghum, African rice, pearl millet, and later, plants from the Middle East and Asia.

How did urbanism begin in West Africa?

Emerged through the aggregation of villages for trade and ritual, becoming densely populated.

Was there kingship in early West African urbanism?

No initial kingship; power shifted between competing lineages.

What is the significance of Ile Ife?

A major religious center in the Yoruba Kingdom, becoming a city-state by the 9th century AD.