Tatiana Luzan Bio 1002 Exam 3

Urinary system

Removes metabolic wastes and regulates water, ions, and pH

Kidneys

Organs that filter blood and produce urine

Ureters

Carry urine from kidneys to bladder

Urinary bladder

Stores urine

Urethra

Carries urine out of the body

Nephron

Functional unit of the kidney

Urine

Fluid containing wastes and excess water

Excretion

Removal of metabolic wastes

Osmoregulation

Control of water and ion balance

Order of urine flow

Kidney → Ureter → Bladder → Urethra

Filtration

Movement of small molecules from blood into nephron

Reabsorption

Return of useful substances to blood

Secretion

Addition of wastes into filtrate

Glomerulus

Capillary cluster where filtration begins

Bowman's capsule

Collects filtrate from glomerulus

Loop of Henle

Creates concentration gradient for water reabsorption

Collecting duct

Final pathway where urine concentration is adjusted

Filtrate contents

Water, glucose, ions, urea (no large proteins and no red or white blood cells)

Reabsorption location

Mainly occurs in proximal tubule

Secretion examples

Hydrogen ions, drugs, toxins

Renal cortex

Outer kidney region where filtration occurs

Renal medulla

Inner region containing loops of Henle

Renal pelvis

Collects urine before it enters ureter

Kidney functions

Regulate blood pressure, pH, and blood volume

ADH

Hormone that increases water reabsorption

Effect of ADH

Produces concentrated urine

Low ADH effect

Produces large amounts of dilute urine

High ADH effect

Produces small amounts of concentrated urine

Aldosterone

Increases sodium (and water) reabsorption

Renin

Hormone that helps regulate blood pressure

Erythropoietin

Hormone that stimulates red blood cell production

Kidney pH regulation

Secretes H⁺ and reabsorbs bicarbonate

Freshwater fish

Produce large volumes of dilute urine

Saltwater fish

Conserve water and excrete excess salts

Desert mammals Long loops of Henle to conserve water

Dialysis Artificial filtering of blood

Kidney failure Leads to buildup of toxins in blood

Juxtaglomerular apparatus Regulates filtration and blood pressure

Immune system Body system that defends against pathogens

Pathogen Disease

causing organism

Antigen

Molecule that triggers immune response

Innate immunity

Nonspecific, immediate defense

Adaptive immunity

Specific defense that develops over time

First line of defense

Physical and chemical barriers

Second line of defense

Internal defenses

Third line of defense

Adaptive immune response

Foreign antigen

Triggers immune response

Self Antigen

A molecule that is a part of the body

Antibody

Protein that binds to a specific antigen

White blood cells

Include leukocytes and lymphocytes

Leukocytes

White blood cells with phagocytic abilities

Phagocytes

Engulf and digest pathogens

Lymphocytes

T and B cells part of adaptive immune system

External

nonspecific defenses Physical and chemical barriers

Inflammation

Local, nonspecific response causing redness, heat, swelling and pain

Humoral immunity

Involving B cells and antibodies

Cell-mediated immunity

Involving T cells

Vaccination

Exposure to antigen to build immunity

Primary immune response

Adaptive response after first exposure

Secondary immune response

Faster, stronger response after secondary exposure

Specificity

Each antibody binds one specific antigen

Self tolerance

Body's ability to not respond to self

Memory

Ability to remember previous encounters with pathogens

Immunogenicity

Ability to elicit adaptive immune response

Active immunity

Immunity from infection or vaccination

Passive immunity

Immunity from antibodies received

Artificial immunity

Received (usually via injection) in the doctor`s office.

Natural immunity

Developed naturally (upon encounter of the infectious agent and developing a disease).

Artificial passive immunity example

A person got bitten by a venomous snake and received an anti-venom that delivers premade monoclonal antibodies

Artificial active immunity example

A person receives vaccination, activating the innate immune system and forming memory cells.

Natural passive immunity example

A mother passes antibodies to a child while breastfeeding; the child is vulnerable once breastfeeding stops

Natural active immunity example

A person gets infected by a live pathogen and develops a full blown disease, creating memory cells.

Antigen recognition

When innate immune defenses fail, T and B cells recognize predominant foreign antigen using two separate methods.

Antigen presentation

A process by which T and B cells recognize foreign antigens, necessary for their activation.

Antigen presenting cells (APCs)

Include macrophages and dendritic cells, presenting antigens to T helper cells.

B cells

Part of adaptive immunity, produce antibodies and recognize freefloating antigens using B cell receptor.

T cells

Part of adaptive immunity, attack infected cells or coordinate response by making cytokines.

T and B cell formation

Both types form in bone marrow.

T and B cell development

A process by which T and B cells learn to recognize and react with foreign antigens.

Clonal deletion

A process that eliminates 'forbidden clones' during T and B cell development.

'Forbidden' clones

T and B cells that react with self-antigens.

Clonal selection

Activation and multiplication of only specific T and B lymphocytes that match the foreign antigen.

Helper T cells ls.

Help B cells produce antibodies and assist cytotoxic T cells in killing infected body cells

Cytotoxic T cells

Kill body cells infected with a virus or those that became cancerous.

Regulatory T cells

Calm the immune response down when a particular pathogen is defeated.

Memory cells

Provide long term immunity; can be memory T helper, memory T cytotoxic, or memory B cells.

Plasma cells

Activated B cells that secrete antibodies.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

Proteins that present antigens. Self

Interferons

Proteins that inhibit viral replication, part of innate response.

Complement system

Proteins that enhance immune response by attaching to pathogens and attracting antibodies.

Allergy

Overreaction of immune system to harmless substances.

Autoimmune disease

Immune system attacks own body.

HIV

Virus that destroys helper T cells.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Anterior pituitary — Females: stimulates follicle growth, estrogen secretion, ovulation; Males: stimulates sperm development

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Anterior pituitary — Females: triggers ovulation, corpus luteum growth, estrogen & progesterone secretion; Males: stimulates testosterone secretion

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

Anterior pituitary — Stimulates thyroid to release thyroxine

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Anterior pituitary — Stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol)

Prolactin (PRL)

Anterior pituitary — Stimulates milk production

Growth hormone (GH)

Anterior pituitary — Stimulates growth, protein synthesis, fat metabolism; inhibits sugar metabolism

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Made in hypothalamus, stored and released by posterior pituitary — Promotes water reabsorption in kidneys; constricts arterioles