FINAL ABA

What is Operant Conditioning?

Learning is controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behavior. 

A Skinner Box is a

modified cage with levels or buttons animals could press or peck. 

Positive Reinforcement:

(Appetitive Stimulus)

 1. The occurrence of behavior 

2. Follow by the addition of a stimulus (or increase in the intensity of a stimulus)

3. Results in an increase in the future probability of the behavior. 

Negative Reinforcement

(aversive stimulus present) 

1. The occurrence of a behavior 

2. Followed by the removal of a stimulus (or decrease in intensity of a stimulus)

3. Results in an increase in the future probability of the behavior. 

Focus on the Antecedent and Consequence whether you are adding or removing something.

The behavior doesn’t technically matter. 

Escape:

The behavior terminates an aversive stimulus that’s already there.

Avoidance:

The behavior prevents the onset of an aversive stimulus. (A warning stimulus is often present. The behavior terminates the warning stimulus (escape) while preventing the onset of the aversive stimulus (avoidance). )

Negative Reinforcement is NOT: 

Punishment 

It does not necessarily produce “negative” behavior 

Does not necessarily involve pain. 

We are born with the capability for our behavior to be

reinforced by some stimuli. 

There are unconditioned reinforcers.

We did not have to learn these things. It didn't have to be taught (oxygen, warmth, social connections). 

Unconditioned Negative Reinforcers:

pain, extreme temperatures, intense sound, intense light, shock

Abolishing Operation

decreases the value of a reinforcer, making it less effective at increasing the likelihood of a behavior.

Establishing Operation

temporarily increases the value of a reinforcer, making a specific behavior more likely to occur.

Conditioned Reinforcers are

previously neutral stimulus. (Primary)

Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers are

a stimulus that has been paired with many different types of reinforcers, such as money, praise, or tokens, which gives it the power to reinforce a wide range of behaviors without being tied to a specific need.

A stimulus can be a reinforcer/aversive stimulus for one person but not for another. 

A stimulus can be a reinforcer/aversive stimulus on some occasions but not others. 

Fsctors that Influence Reinforcement—Immediacy:

As soon as possible, less than 60 seconds, effects of reinforcement drops off as delay increases. 

Fsctors that Influence Reinforcement—Contingency:

The relationship; ABC’s is a three term contingency

Motivating Operations—Life Altering: 

alter the value of the reinforce

Motivating Operations—Behavior Altering: 

They make the behavior that produces that reinforcer more or less likely to occur at that time. 

Fsctors that Influence Reinforcement—Individual Differences:

State of MO, personality, interests, things that you like vs what another person likes. 

Fsctors that Influence Reinforcement—Magnitude:

the size/strength of a reinforcer

Reinforcer should be ASAP, 

less than 60secs, effect of reinforcer drops off as delay increases. 

Identifying reinforcers:

You can’t teach anyone anything without a reinforcer. 

Idenfifying reinforcers is important when we want to: 

Establish new responses 

Strengthen specific dimensions of existing behaviors (example: running more) 

Establishing new stimulus control over existing responses 

What stimuli are effective reinforcers for the person we are working with? 

Punishment: 

Parallels definitions of reinforcement, behavior decreases instead of increasing. 

Punishers—Unconditioned: 

extremely hot or cold temperatures, loud noises, pain, starvation. 

Punishers—Conditioned: 

bad grades, being fired, taking a toy away, getting a ticket. 

Positive Punishment is

adding a stimulus that was not there before. We are adding an aversive stimulus as a consequence. 

Negative Punishment is

taking away an appetitive stimulus because of the behavior. 

Punish behavior, not persons.

Just focusing on the behavior, not trying to make you obedient as a person

Effects on future frequency of behavior. 

It’s only punishment if it decreases in the future (long-term, not just for a moment) 

Whatever I intend to punish you with it doesn't matter, it depends on if the behavior goes away LONG-TERM in the future. 

Not just whatever stops or prevents behavior here and now.

Extinction:

Behavior no longer produces the consequence it once produced. A reinforcement contingency is terminated. The future probability decreases. 

Punishment :

Behavior produces a consequence that it did not produce before. A reinforcement contingency may still be in effect. (The punishment contingency is added on top of the reinforcement contingency. Future probability decreases. 

Identifying Contingencies—Reinforcement:

Is the consequence a stimulus presentation? (positive reinforcement) Or a stimulus removal? (negative reinforcement) 

Identifying Contingencies—Punishment or Extinction:

Is the consequence a stimulus presentation? (positive punishment) Stimulus removal? (negative punishment)  Or Nothing? (extinction)

Shaping:

The process of systematically and differentially reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior. 

Differential reinforcement is

reinforcement and extinction used together.  (used in shaping) 

You start out reinforcing an initial behavior that shares a feature of the target behavior. Once the starting behavior occurs reliably, stop reinforcing it (put it under extinction) and reinforce only closer approximations. 

Successive approximations:

an increasingly accurate response. (correct responses) 

Shaping can be used deliberately to: 

Establish new response topographies (what the behaviors look like) or reinstate old ones. 

Change some dimension (topography, frequency, duration, latency, and intensity) 

Clicker Training: 

Establish click as a conditioned reinforcer (how would this work?)

Timing is important (immediately after the behavior happens) 

Dopamine hits to hit right after behavior happens. 

Behavior is an immediate consequence. 

Animals don't get satiated (why not?): It’s not food so it doesn’t fill your stomach. 

Shaping Guidelines: 

Define the Target Behavior 

Determine whether shaping is an appropriate procedure

Determine the criterion for success.

Identify the starting behavior 

Choosing the shaping steps 

Choose the reinforcer 

Differentially reinforce successive approximations 

Move through the shaping steps at a proper place. 

Limitations of Shaping: 

Time-consuming 

Progress is not always linear 

Learner needs to be monitored

Can be misapplied

Harmful behavior can be shaped 

When NOT to Use Shaping: 

When the person already engages in the target behavior, just not often enough. Instead, simply differentially reinforce the target behavior. 

When you can easily get the behavior to occur via instructions, modeling, or other prompts. Use prompting and prompt-fading strategies instead. 

Self-Management: 

Occurs when a person engages in behavior at one time to control the occurrence of another behavior at a later time. 

Controlling Behavior:

the one you do to influence your future behavior.

Controlled Behavior:

the one you are trying to change

Antecedent control procedures involve

manipulating some aspect of the physical or social environment to evoke a desired response or to make competing, undesirable behavior less likely. Modify before the target behavior occurs. 

Six General Strategies: 

1. Presenting SDs for the appropriate behavior

2.Removing the SDs for competing undesirable behavior

3. Arranging EOs that increase reinforcing value of consequences of a desirable behavior

4. Arranging AOs that decrease value of consequences maintaining undesirable behavior

5. Reducing response effort for competing desirable behavior

6. Increasing response effort for undesirable behavior

By presenting the appropriate SD’s, you are

arranging the right conditions for the behavior to occur. 

Behavioral Contracting: 

Written document in which you identify the target behavior and arrange consequences contingent on a specified level of target behavior in a specific time period. 

Arrange Reinforcer and Punishers—Social Support:

Significant others in a person’s life provide a natural context or cues for the occurrence of the target behavior when they naturally provide reinforcing consequences for the target behavior. 

Arrange Reinforcer and Punishers—Self-Instructions and Self-Praise:

first use self-instructions (antecedents) to guide behavior, then use self-praise (consequences) immediately after the behavior occurs to reinforce it. We can influence our own behavior by talking to ourselves. 

Arrange Reinforcer and Punishers—Maintain:

Decreasing reinforcement, intermittent. (fading reinforcement)

Steps in a Self-Management Plan: 

1. Make the decision to engage in self-management

2. Define the target behavior and competing behaviors 

3. Set goals 

4. Choose appropriate self-management strategies. 

5. Self-monitor 

6. Evaluate change 

What is a prompt?

An antecedent stimulus that is added to a learning situation in order to increase the probability of a correct response. 

The prompt: 

Already occasions the response 

Does not occur naturally in the situation

Allows reinforcement for correct responses

Makes teaching or training more efficient 

Response:

behavior of another person that evokes the desired response in the presence of the SD. 

Types of Prompts—1. Verbal:

Teacher gives prompts such as "match green” and “put in”

Types of Prompts—2. Gestural:

Teacher points to object or correct answers.

Types of Prompts—3. Modeling:

(imitation) Showing students what to do/completes a question for students.

Types of Prompts—4. Partial Physical:

Teacher “nudges” student to the correct spot or to begin activity

Types of Prompts—5. Full Physical:

Complete handover hand assistance. 

Within stimulus

a type of prompt used in applied behavior analysis that helps a learner make a correct discrimination by altering the physical characteristics of the target stimulus itself. (bold, changing size, color of stimulus, italics, all caps) 

Extra stimulus:

a temporary, added cue that helps a person respond correctly to a stimulus by providing additional information. (background color, underline, highlight, arrows) 

Fading:

Prompts must eventually be faded (gradually removed) to bring the behavior under the control of naturally occurring stimuli. (The gradual elimination of a prompt). The purpose being to transfer stimulus control from prompt to natrually occuring S^D. 

Failure to fade prompts results in

prompt dependence. 

Transfer-of-Control Procedures—Prompt fading: Most to Least 

Amount of assistance gradually decreased across trials. Use for less advanced learners and when first teaching a new skill. 

Transfer-of-Control Procedures—Prompt fading: Least-to-most

Amount of assistance gradually increased across trials. Use for more advanced learners who do not need a physical prompt. 

Prompt Delay: (only a delay in time)

Delay between naturally occurring SD and prompt gradually increased across trials. Constant or progressive. The first trial always begins with a 0 s delay between the SD and prompt. You can shape latency (time between the prompt and the behavior) 

 Stimulus Fading: 

Over time, gradually remove an external stimulus or stimulus discrimination (color, shape, intensity) that has been added to the naturally occurring SD. 

Reinforcement:

A stimulus change contingent on a response that increases the future probability of the response. 

Stimulus Shape Transformation:

Use an initial shape that will prompt a correct response, then gradually change in the initial shape to form the natural stimulus. 

Transfer-of-Control Procedures:

Are used in conjunction with differential reinforcement (reinforcement + extinction) of unprompted responses. Provided powerful reinforcers when response occurs without a prompt (or with a less intrusive prompt) 

Less powerful reinforcers for prompted responses (eventually eliminate) (DO NOT GIVE HIGHEST REINFORCER)

Helps prevent prompt dependence

How to Prompt and Transfer Stimulus Control: 

1. Get the learner's attention

• If you don't have a learner's attention and you try to prompt, you cannot say they did not respond because they were not paying attention. You have to have their attention. 

2. Present the SD

3. Prompt the correct response 

4. Reinforce the correct response 

5. Begin transferring stimulus control (fading the prompt)

• Differentially reinforce responses that occur at lower levels of prompting. 

6. When correct responses begin to occur without the prompt, reinforce only unprompted responses. 

Behavioral Chains:

A complex behavior consisting of many component behaviors that occur together in a sequence. 

Each behavior chain consists of a number of individual

stimulus-response components that occur together in a sequence.

Each behavior or response in a chain acts as an SD for the

next response in the chain. 

The last response in the chain results in a

reinforcer that is the natural outcome of the chain.

Task Analysis:

a written list of all stimulus-response units of a behavioral chain. Written version of a behavioral chain. Always the first stop of teaching a chain. 

Each response and the stimulus change that it produces 

The size of the unit depends on the learner, but needs to be very specific. 

Chaining procedures involve the

systematic application of prompting and fading strategies to each stimulus-response component in the chain. 

Backward chaining:

learners with limited abilities, use prompting and fading to teach the last step first. When a learner can perform last step without prompting, you complete all but the last TWO. 

Present last SD, prompt the correct response, and provide the reinforcer. 

Forward Chaining:

Teach the first step first, then add one step at a time. Use if the learner can already perform most of the steps, but does not have them “chained” together. Also use when the first steps in the chain are easiest. 

Total Task Presentation:

Teach the entire chain without requiring mastery of one step at a time. Useful for higher functioning learners, and simple or brief chains. Results in the most errors.

Prompt during each step as needed (graduated guidance)

Fade prompt until the learner can perform the entire chain independently 

Written task analyses (textual prompt)": 

The learner reads each step and then performs it–the write analysis serves as a prompt

Guidelines for Using Chaining: 

1. Determine whether chaining is appropriate 

2. Develop a task analysis

3. Get a baseline assessment of the learners ability to engage in the behaviors in the task analysis

4. Choose the chaining method 

5. Implement the chaining procedure 

6. Provide intermittent reinforcement after training is completed.

What is Autism Spectrum Disorder?

A developmental and neurological disorder. It affects how a person communicates, learns, and behaves. Symptoms normally appear in the first two years of a child’s life, but it is possible to be diagnosed at any age

Boys are diagnosed with autism four times more often than girls,

but it is widely thought that girls are under-diagnosed.

How many people are autistic?

1 in 31 children aged eight years have been diagnosed with ASD in the United States. (2025). Globally, 1 in 100 are diagnosed. However, this number is expected to be lower depending on diagnosis rates. (2022)

What are some early signs of ASD?

Avoiding eye contact

Delayed social skills

Playing pretend can be difficult

Increased sensory needs: could show itself as increased or under responsiveness to stimuli (ex. Being overwhelmed by noise or light, but decreased sensitivity to heat).

Repetitive behaviors such as lining up toys, having a strict routine, echolalia (repeating words and phrases), and obsessive interests.

Delayed movement, language, or cognitive skills.

Physical symptoms such as gastrointestinal issues (constipation), epilepsy, and unusual sleeping habits.

How is ASD diagnosed using the DSM5?

Diagnostic criteria must be met in early childhood.

1.Persistent deficits in social communication and social interactions

2.Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior,interests or activities

3.Symptoms present early in developmental period (usually before age 3)

4.Symptoms cause significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning

Autism was misdiagnosed as

childhood-onset schizophrenia because of overlapping symptoms (language delays, social communications delays and withdrawal, flat tones)

Comorbidity:

up to 34.8% of individuals with ASD experience or have experienced psychotic symptoms

1. Level 1 “Requiring Support”:

Individuals may experience some challenges but can generally function independently with others

2.Level 2 “Requiring Substantial Support”:

Individuals experience significant challenges and require substantial support to function

3. Level 3: “Requiring Very Substantial Support”:

Individuals experience severe deficits in nonverbal and verbal communication skills and require ongoing support to function effectively

What causes autism?

There is not a single, definitive cause of autism.

Factors that make autism more likely include:

Geriatric pregnancies (>35 years)

Prenatal exposure to heavy metals

Gestational diabetes

Low fetal birth weight or premature birth

Reduced oxygen to the fetus at birth

Becoming pregnant very soon after having another baby (within a year)

Genetic variations

ABA based treatments are the only treatments that have been supported by substantial empirical research.

Works alongside speech therapy, social skills training, CBT and even occupational therapy.

Unfortunately autism is the only diagnosis covered by

insurance for ABA services.