Unit 1 - AP Psych

heredity

the transmission of traits from parents to offspring

nature vs. nurture

an important debate that persists throughout psychology regarding the extent to which our genes (nature) or our environment (nurture) shape who we are

genetic predisposition

a tendency for certain traits to be inherited

evolutionary perspective

the gradual change in a population over many generations due to natural selection

natural selection

environmental factors eliminate those individuals who cannot adapt, gradually eliminating maladaptive characteristics and favoring those who survive and reproduce

eugenics

a social and political philosophy based on the evolutionary perspective that seeks to eliminate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup through selective human breeding

neuron

cellular units of the nervous system (nerve cells)

sensory neuron

a neuron that receives information from the environment

motor neuron

a neuron that connects to muscle fibers

interneuron

a connector neuron, often found in the spinal cord

reflex

an automatic response to a stimulus that involves the sensory neurons to interneurons and back to the motor neurons before the brain registers the stimulus

glial cells

supports the functions of neurons by providing nutrients, insulating myelin, helping neurons connect, and cleaning up waste; linked to intellgience (“glue cells”)

dendrites

extension of the cell body that receives messages

cell body (soma)

the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus

axon

extension of a nerve cell that carries electrical messages and can travel long distances throughout the body

myelin sheath

the insulating layer surrounding the axon that increases the speed of transmission; a breakdown of the myelin sheath is a cause of multiple sclerosis

terminal branches

discharges chemical neurotransmitters into the synapse

neural transmission

sending information from one neuron to another via chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) at the synapse

action potential

neural firing; a change in electrical charge takes place in the axon

depolarization

positive ions flow into the axon as negative ions push out

resting potential

the cell is at rest, with -70 MV inside the axon

all-or-nothing principle

a neuron reaches action potential, or it doesn’t; there is no partial firing of a neuron

threshold for excitation

stimulus intensity is significant enough to make a neuron fire, or when the excitatory neurotransmitters exceed the inhibitory

reuptake

the process of the sending neuron reabsorbing the neurotransmitters released in the synapse

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a cell fired; will not respond to stimuli

neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons into synapses, which transmit information to nearby neurons

excitatory

make a greater likelihood of action potential

inhibitory

make for a smaller likelihood of action potential

ACh (acetylcholine)

enables muscle memroy, action, and learningl deteriorates in people with Alzheimer’s

myasthenia gravis

the body produces antibodies against ACh receptors affecting transmission of nerve impulses in the muscles

dopamine

influences movement and emotion; excess linked to schizophrenia, too little linked to Parkinson’s 

serotonin

affects mood (happiness), hunger, and sleep; undersupply linked to depression

norepinephrine

increases alertness and arousal

GABA

inhibitory; prevents neural firing and is involved in memory; undersupply linked to seizures

glutamate

excitatory; helps neural firing; oversupply can overstimulate the brain causing headaches and seizures

endorphins

produced during intense physical activity or trauma; reduces pain sensations and makes one euphoric

substance P

causes the feeling of pain; high concentrations are located in the spinal cord

hormones

slow-moving chemical messengers outside of the nervous system, often in the bloodstream, tissue, and organs

adrenaline or epinephrine

secreted in large amounts during fight or flight situations; increase sympathetic nervous system arousal

leptin

found in the brain’s hypothalamus; communicates the amount of body fat stored and helps regulate food intake

ghrelin

secreted in the stomach; stimulates appetite and the growth hormone

melatonin

helps regulate circadian rhythm

oxytocin

stimulates muscle contractions of the uterus during labor; promotes nurturing activities and influences sexual pleasure

agonist

a chemical or drug that binds to the receptor site of a neuron, producing an effect similar to a neurotransmitter

antagonist

a chemical or drug that binds to the receptor site of a neuron, blocking neurotransmitters from attaching

reuptake inhibitors

blocks the sending neuron from reabsorption of neurotransmitters, keeping them. inthe synaptic gap longer

stimulants

excite the functional activity of the body system; caffeine and cocaine

depressants

diminish the activity of the body system; alcohol, barbiturates, opioids

hallucinogens

produce a sensory effect without the stimuli; marijuana

opioid

derived from naturally occurring opiates; relieve pain and suppress coughs and drowsiness; ex- heroin

tolerance

diminished effect of the drug; more of it is required to receive the same effect

withdrawal

symptoms after stopping using; include cognitive, physiological, emotional, insomnia, and behavioral

addiction

physiological or psychological dependence on a drug

brainstem

controls basic bodily functions

medulla

breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure

midbrain

regulating eye movement

reticular activating system

part of the reticular formation; involved in arousal, alertness, sleep, and filtering incoming sensory information

reward centers

various parts of the brain produce pleasure from eating, drinking, and sex

cerebellum

it helps maintain balance, coordinate muscle movements, and some forms of procedural learning

limbic system

the emotional brain, some memory functions

thalamus

receives sensory input (except smell) and routes them to the higher brain regions

hypothalamus

regulates appetite and thirst

ventromedial hypothalamus

stimulation makes one full (satiated); a lesion does the opposite

lateral hypothalamus

stimulation makes one hungry; a lesion does the opposite

amygdala

involved in fear and the fight or flight response

hippocampus

processes declarative memory for long-term storage; it is not the location of stored memories

cerebral cortex

top of the brain that is involved in higher-level thinking such as language, problem-solving, perception, and planning

frontal lobe

involved in higher-order thinking (problem-solving, decision-making, abstraction, logic), executive functioning (planning, organization, inhibitory control), and linguistic processing

parietal lobe

includes the somatosensory cortex, which receives messages from sensory neurons (touch) and determines the location of the body that received the stimuli

occipital lobe

receives and processes visual stimuli

temporal lobe

involved in many auditory tasks and linguistic processing (sound and language)

split-brain patients

patients with severed corpus callosum who demonstrate an inability for the two hemispheres to communicate

corpus callosum

bundle of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain

broca’s area

involved in the production of speech

wernicke’s area

involved in the interpretation of sounds and language

aphasia

language impairment due to brain damage

broca’s aphasia

inability to produce language

wernicke’s aphasia

inability to comprehend sound and/or spoken language

electroencephalogram (EEG)

the measure of brain electrical activity with sensors on top of the skull, good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution

function magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

generates successive images with poor temporal resolution but good spatial resolution

plasticity or neuroplasticity

the ability of the nervous system to change, adapt, and rewire based on input from the environment

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

somatic nervous system

a component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the skin, muscles, and joints

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy