ch. 11 gender - LN

lecture notes

• Gender identity likely emerges before _ years of age. 

2

• Children aware of gender at an early age may be motivated to adhere to _ _ by dressing in traditionally masculine and feminine ways. 

• gender stereotypes

• One study revealed that sex-typed toy play during the preschool years predicted sex-typed behaviours _ years later.

  • was this the case regardless of whether the children were being raised by lesbian, gay, or heterosexual parents

• five

• yes it was the case

what hormones is gender most influenced by?

estrogens and androgens

Estrogen and androgens both occur in both females and males, in different concentrations. (true/false)

true

what hormone is produced primarily by the adrenal glands?

androgens

androgens are produced in the _ for males and in the _ for females

testes

ovaries

in the evolutionary psychological view, natural selection favoured males who adopted _-term mating strategies…In competition with other males they evolved dispositions that favor _, _, & _

short

violence

competition

risk taking

in the evolutionary psychological view, Females favoured those who devoted effort to parenting and chose males who could provide offspring with _ and _

resources

protection

critics argue that the hypotheses above (evolutionary psychological view) are backed by speculation not evidence; and that they pay little attention to _ and _ variations

cultural

individual

• The social hierarchy and division of labor are important causes of gender differences in _, _, and _.

• power

• assertiveness

• nurturing

How does time spent in division of labour influence our social role? give an example

the more time you spend in a social role… the more you start to fit into that role

e.g. women spend more time nursing and child bearing = limits ability to practice hunting

What theory proposes that children’s gender development occurs through: Observation and imitation; and the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviour 

• The social cognitive theory of gender

• Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of social _ in gender development.

• contexts

• Parents influence their children’s and adolescents’ gender development by _ and _

  • They often use rewards and punishments

• action

• example

Which parent is more involved with their children?

mothers

what factor influences whether fathers spend more time in parenting and decreases chances of getting divorced?

when fathers have sons

What’s an example of parents socializing their daughters and sons differently?

e.g. boys more exposed to science material discussions than girls at a science museum

what is the difference between the processes and outcomes of the social role theory versus the social cognitive theory?

SRT

• P - Observation and adaptation to gendered social roles that are common within a particular cultural context

• O - Gender behaviour conforms to expectations for roles within social hierarchies 

SCT

• P - Rewards and punishments of gender-appropriate and inappropriate behaviour by adults and peers; observation and imitation of models masculine and feminine behaviour

• O - Gender behaviour that is rewarded within a cultural context becomes more common

• Gendered interactions between parents and children begin in _ and usually continue through _ and _. 

• infancy

• childhood

• adolescence

_ _ describes parental messages and behaviours that convey information about how boys and girls are supposed to behave.

Gendered parenting

• Parents’ own gender stereotypes predict the extent to which they engage in _ gendered roles and gendered parenting. 

• stereotypical

there has been an increase in gender-neutral parenting in recent years. (true/false)

true

• As children age, peers become increasingly (less/more) important, rewarding and punishing gender behaviour. 

  • "Girls acting like boys" is generally (less/more) accepted than the reverse 

more

more

• Children show a clear preference for being with and liking same-sex peers. 

  • The preference for same-gender dyads is more pronounced for (girls/boys) than for (girls/boys).

girls

boys

developmental changes in % of time spent in same-sex and mixed-group settings: what is the difference between 4.5 and 6.5 year olds

4.5 year olds - 45% same sex, 35% mixed

6.5 year olds- 60% same sex, 27% mixed

• Certain patterns emerge as boys and girls spend more time w/ same-gender peers

  • Boys activity level, rough-and-tumble play, and sex-typed choice of toys and games (decrease/increase); and they spend (less/more) time near adults 

  • Girls activity level and aggression (decrease/increase) and their girl-type play and time spent near adults (decrease/increases)

increase

more

decreases

increases

• Peer groups in adolescence are more mixed, but gender _ continues in some aspects of social life

  • Peer approval or disapproval is a powerful influence on gender _ and _

• segregation

• attitudes

• behaviour

what are several factors that suggest teachers and schools are biased against boys?

• Compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly—which characterize girls more than boys—are valued and reinforced in many classrooms. 

• More attention to boys, more criticized, see behaviour as more problematic, academic disruption especially in language ignored etc 

• Young girls more likely to have learning difficulties go unnoticed because it presents in a less problematic manner

• A large majority of teachers are female, especially at the elementary level. 

• Boys are more likely to be criticized by teachers. 

• School personnel tend to ignore the fact that many boys are having academic problems, especially in the language arts.

•  Boys’ behaviour is more likely to be stereotyped as problematic.

what are several factors suggest the classroom setting is biased against girls?

• Girls compliance and quiet in the classroom may come at the cost of diminished assertiveness

• Teachers watch and interact with boys more

• Boys get more instruction and more help when having trouble

• Girls are less likely to believe they will be successful in college

• Girls and boys enter first grade with roughly equal levels of self-esteem, but by middle school, girls’ is lower

• When asked to list what they want to do when they grow up, boys described more career options than girls do

• _ _ messages about gender roles are important influences on gender development. 

  • Men are typically portrayed as more _ than women. 

  • Exposure to portrayals that sexually objectify women are related to men’s and women’s views of women as less _ and less _ and to increased _ of sexual violence against women. 

• Mass media

• powerful

• competent

• moral

• tolerance

What were the 3 stages of Kohlberg’s (1996) cognitive-developmental theory of gender?

gender identity

gender stability

gender constancy

what are limitations to Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory of gender?

quite aged and not aged well in the climate today

according to the gender schema theory, gender schemas organize the world in terms of _ and _, and that children are _ to act in ways that conform to gender schemas

male

female

motivated

according to gender stereotypes, (girls/boys) gender stereotypes are more rigid than (girls’/boys’), & assigned traits are different and–significantly– unequal in terms of _ _ and _

• Male traits are _ - being independent, aggressive, power-oriented

• Female traits are _ - being warm and sensitive

this can be _ if it doesn't fit how you want to experience the world around you

boys, girls

social status

power

instrumental

expressive

confining

• Gender stereotyping is present among _ -year-olds and increases considerably by _ years of age. (Even when adults don’t explicitly engage in gender stereotyping, they provide children with _ about gender; and children use these cues to guide their _)

• 2

• 4

• information

• behaviour

• Gender _ continues to change during middle and late childhood and adolescence. 

• Research has found that children believe it is easier for (girls/boys) than (girls/boys) to challenge gender stereotypes.

• example?

• stereotyping

• girls

• boys

• e.g. sports (competitiveness), dance (boys get called gay)

• Gender differences are _ and do not apply to all females or all males. 

• Even when gender differences occur, there often is considerable _ between males and females. 

• Differences may be due primarily to _ factors, _ factors, or both.

• averages

• overlap

• biological

• sociocultural

for cognitive and socio-emotional development, the overall pattern suggests (less/more) gender similarities than differences, but in certain areas there does appear to be moderate to large _. 

more

differences

• (females/males) score higher than (females/males) in aggression, masculinity, spatial rotation ability, attention to physical attractiveness in mate selection, confidence in physical ability, and performance in same-sex groups. 

• (females/males) score higher in reactions to painful stimuli, fear, attachment to peers, and interest in people rather than things. 

• There is some evidence for higher average visuospatial skills in (females/males) and greater reading and writing ability in (females/males)

• differences are small overall*

males

females

females

males

females

• In Canada, more (females/males) than (females/males) do not finish high school. 

• (Women/Men) are more likely to attend college or university than (women/men), who are more likely to pursue trades. 

• Currently (females/males) show greater overall academic interest and achievement.

males

females

women

men

females

• Gender differences in science, technology, and math careers continue to favor (females/males). 

  • (Girls/Boys) have more negative math attitudes. 

  • Parents’ and teachers’ expectations for children’s math competence are often gender-biased in favor of (girls/boys).

males

girls

boys

• (Girls/Boys) are more physically aggressive than (girls/boys). 

  • The difference occurs in all cultures and appears very (early/late). 

  • It is especially pronounced when children are _.

boys

girls

• early

• provoked

• When _ aggression is examined, gender differences typically disappear. 

• verbal

• _ aggression comprises a greater percentage of girls’ overall aggression than is the case for boys.

• Relational

• Females express emotion (less/more) and are (worse/better) than males at decoding emotion

• Males experience and express more _ than females

• The gender differences in positive emotion- shown more by (females/males) - becomes more pronounced with age

more

better

• anger

• females

• Boys usually develop self-regulation (earlier/later) and more (slowly/faster) than girls do- which can translate into behaviour problems

  • Females engage in more _ behaviour

later

slowly

• prosocial

• Gender _ becomes more salient during adolescence but has precursors in childhood. 

• identity

• Most children identify with the gender associated with their biological sex at birth—_ children. 

• Some identify with the gender not consistent with their biological sex at birth— _ children.

• cisgender

• transgender

when do kids know their gender?

• Age 6 - i am a girl and feel like a girl

• May be very early on or later in adolescence

What is the idea around the gender unicorn?

• You at any age, individual experience may differ

• can look many different ways

• Socially transitioned transgender children (with no hormonal or surgical interventions) report that they identified with their current gender by the age of _. 

• Transgender boys and girls have cognitive patterns (less/more) consistent with their expressed gender than their natal sex. 

• They are indistinguishable in terms of expressed preferences from cisgender children with the same gender _. 

• Prejudice, discrimination, bullying, family rejection, and lack of self-acceptance are all significant concerns.

3

more

• identity

• Some critics of androgyny propose an alternative: gender-role _, the view that we should think of ourselves as _ first, not as being masculine, feminine, or androgynous. 

• They stress that gender-role _ leads to too much _.

• transcendence

• people

• classification

• stereotyping

• Some gender roles might be more appropriate than others depending on the _ or _. example?

• context

• setting

• For example, stereotypes suggest females are better at helping; but the difference actually depends on the situation. 

• Emotional differences between males and females are more likely to show up in contexts that highlight _ _ and _.

• social roles

• relationships

• _ aren’t inherently gender, it’s how we talk about them and expect them

• Feelings