AP Psychology Unit 1 Part 1

Charles Darwin

-The English naturalist, the father of Evolutionary Psychology

-In his book, On the Origin of Species (1859) explained that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry and proposed the scientific theory that he called natural selection

Behavior Genetics

Study of the relative power and limits of genetic environmental influences on behavior.

Mutation

Random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior & the mind, using principles of natural selection

Natural Selection

the principle that :Inherited traits that improve survival and reproduction will likely be passed on.

Nature vs. Nurture

-the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes & experience make to the development of psychological traits & behaviors

-while heredity can largely influence someone's behavior, it never acts alone.

Genome

Complete instructions for making an organism.

Genes

 the biochemical units of heredity.

identical twins (monozygotic)

individuals who developed from a single, fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

fraternal twins (Dizygotic)

individuals who developed when two separate fertilized eggs that share a maternal prenatal environment. 

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

epigenetics

The study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)

Chromosomes

composed of a coiled chain of the molecule DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of organisms, passed down from parents to offspring

Heredity vs. Heritability

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring vs. the proportion of how much of the variation in a trait w/in a population can be attributed to genetic differences

phenotype vs. genotype

observable traits or characteristics of an organism as determined by the interaction of genetics and environmental factors vs. the genetic makeup of an individual organism

nerves

bundled axons that form neutral cables connecting the central nervous system w/ muscles, glands, & sensory organs

central nervous system

the brain & spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

the sensory & motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Spinal Cord

Sends info to and from brain and Peripharal nervous system

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of peripheral nervous system that controls the involuntary basic life functions, like heartbeat, digestion, blood pressure, respiration 

Interneurons

neurons w/in the brain & the spinal cord

they communicate internally & process info between the sensory inputs & motor outputs

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving energy

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming info from the body’s tissues & sensory receptors to the brain & the spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain & spinal cord to the muscles & gland

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building blocks of the nervous system

(Soma) cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus

information goes into here-given enough stimulation, it will pass the message on to the next axon

dendrites

neuron’s branching extensions with receptor site. Like antennas, receive and transmit to the cell body.

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

fatty insulation that protects axon to allow impulses to travel faster(made of glial cells or glia)

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, & protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, & memory

action potential

• Impulse within a neuron that causes a brief wave of positive electrical charge to axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neutral impulse

refractory period

in neutral processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-nothing principle

Either neuron fires or it doesn’t

synapse

junction between two neurons(axon to dendrite) or between a neuron and a muscle.

neurotransmitters

• chemical messengers released by terminal buttons that relay messages across synapses (gap between nerves)

reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endocrine system

Collection of glands throughout body that manufacture and store hormones in the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, & affect other tissues

Acetylcholine

• Memory, muscle action, learning, REM sleep, emotion

• Decreased level suspected in Alzheimer’s 

• Inhibitory and excitatory

Dopamine

• Reward, movement, attention, memory, learning emotion

• Excess linked w/ schizophrenia

• Too little linked w/ parkinson’s

• Excitatory and inhibitory

Endorphins

• Mood, pain, memory, learning, blood pressure, sexual activity, and appetite

• Relieves stress and pain, associated w/ good feelings

• Linked w/ exercise

• inhibitory

GABA

• Major inhibitory neurotransmitter that inhibits central nervous system

• Tranquilizing drugs like valium, alcohol, barbiturates

Glutamine

• Major excitatory neurotransmitter:involved in memory

• Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures

Epinephrine

• Emotional arousal, memory storage, metabolism

• Adrenaline

• Fight or flight

• Excitatory 

Serotonin

• Mood, emotion, sleep, appetite, temp regulation, arousal, pain suppression, sensory perception

• Low levels associated w/ depression

Norepinephrine

• Learning, memory, dreaming, emotion, waking, eating, alertness, reactions to stress

• Low levels linked w/ depression

• High levels linked w/ agitated, manic stress

• Excitatory 

agonist

a molecule that mimic or enhance a particular neurotransmitter’s effect

antagonist

a molecule that block or inhibits a neurotransmitter’s action. Often work by blocking reuptake

Resting Potential

-Electrical potential across the membrane when neuron is not stimulated

-Stable negative charge when cell is inactive

psychoactive drug

chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood and or perception and influence the nervous system 

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption

Depressants

drugs that reduce neutral activity & slow body functions

tolerance

the diminishing effect w/ regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger & larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that contribute despite harmful consequences

withdrawal

• Painful physical reactions when taken off the drug

Barbiturate

drugs reduce anxiety but may impair memory and judgment. Lethal when combined with alcohol

Opioids

opium & its derivatives; they depress neutral activity, temporarily lessening pain & anxiety

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity & speed up body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush w/ death(such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Multiple Sclerosis

 a chronic autoimmune disease that can be caused by disruptions to the neural transmission process. The body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath

Myasthenia Gravis

 a chronic autoimmune disorder that can be caused by disruptions to the neural transmission process. There is a breakdown in communication between nerves and muscles

excitatory neurotansmitters

neurotransmitters that trigger action → makes next neuron more likely to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitter

neurotransmitters that makes the next neuron less likely to fire

Reflex Arc

the connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons resulting in a reflex action

substance P

neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals, stress responses and inflammation

Depolarization

when there’s a shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that allows an action potential to occur

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Caffeine

most widely used drug in the world

stimulant

promotes wakefulness, mental alertness, and faster thought processes by stimulating release of dopamine

antagonist for adenosine

physically addictive and creates withdrawal symptoms

Alcohol

2nd most widely used drug in U.S

agonist for GABA

depressant

lessens inhibitions by depressing brain centers responsible for judgement and self-control

Marijuana

heroine

A depressant and opiate that depresses neural function

Marijuana

mild hallucinogen

enhanced sensation, relief a pain, distortion of time, relaxation

impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders

Heroin

depressant and opioid that depress neural activity temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

ultimately lead to deprecation, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reaction

hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with/ the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information

forebrain

consists the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem, it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation in the reticular activating system

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; it functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain- below the central hemispheres-that includes amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events for storage

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the near of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

temporal lobes

-the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears

Responsible for hearing (process sounds, including speech) and facial recognition

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head

it includes areas that receive info from the visual fields

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head & toward the rear

it receives sensory input for touch & body position

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead

enable linguistic, processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgements).

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and info processing center

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons