Anatomy and Physiology 2 exam 2

what type of tissue is blood

connective tissue

blood funcitons

transportation, regulation, protection

blood pH range

7.35-7.45

what makes up 44% of blood

red blood cells (erythrocytes)

what makes up 55% of blood

plasma

what is in blood plasma

90% water, 9% proteins, 1% solutes

blood plasma proteins- albumin

prevents fluid leaks and binds/transports

blood plasma proteins- globulin

transports lipids and acts as antibodies

blood plasma proteins- fibrinogen

fibrin → blood clotting

where are plasma proteins produced

liver

anatomy of erythrocytes (red blood cells)

anucleate, no organelles

main role of erythrocytes

transporting oxygen

life duration of erythrocytes

120 days → cant divide bc of no nucleus

what is hemoglobin

oxygen carrying protein in red blood cells

anatomy of hemoglobin

4 polypeptide chains (globins)

each globin has a heme group

each heme group contains iron

each heme → binds to 1 oxygen molecule

what happens to old red blood cells that die

broken down by macrophages

amino acids and heme are retained and recycled, waste is released via urinary/digestive systems

erythropoiesis

production of red blood cells

what is hematopoiesis

formation of blood cells

where does hematopoiesis/erythropoiesis occur

red bone marrow

what does erythropoiesis come from

hematopoietic stem cells

low levels of red blood cells means…

hypoxia

what stimulates hematopoiesis

hormonal stimulation

what is anemia

decrease in oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin

anemia symptoms

fatigue, tiredness, feeling cold

3 types of anemia and what they are

1. iron deficiency anemia- not enough iron for hemoglobin production

2. pernicious anemia- decreased red blood cell production due to vitamin B12 deficiency

3. sickle cell anemia- abnormal hemoglobin → RBCs sickle

sickle cell disease- 1 mutated allele vs 2 mutated alleles

1 mutated= sickle cell trait

2 mutated= severe sickle cell anemia

what are leucocytes

white blood cells

which type of blood cells leaves circulation to perform its functions

leukocytes

leukocytes anatomy

nucleated, no hemoglobin

what types of leukocytes are granulocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

neutrophils- function and nuclus

phagocytize pathogens

3-5 lobed nucleus

most common leukocyte

neutrophils

eosinophils- function and nucleus

fight parasitic worms and allergic reactions

2 lobe nucleus

basophils- function and nucleus

inflammatory response- release histamine

lobed nucleus

what type of leukocytes are agranulocytes

monocytes and lymphocytes

least common leukocyte

basophils

monocytes function

become macrophages → engulf pathogens and debris

lymphocytes function

B lymphocytes- produce antibodies

T lymphocytes- direct destruction of pathogens/invaders

leukopoeisis

formation of white blood cells from hematopoietic stem cells

leukopoeisis → what does the lymphoid line vs myeloid line produce

lymphoid= lymphocytes

myeloid= other white blood cells/ red blood cells

difference in leukopoeisis in granulocytes vs agranulocytes

lymphocytes → lymphoid line

granulocytes and monocytes → myeloid line

platelet anatomy

disc shaped, anucleate, cell fragments (not complete cells)

how are platelets produced

megakaryocytes (large cells in bone marrow) shed fragments → platelets

platelets life expectancy

7-10 days

recycled by spleen and liver

platelet functions

produced from megakaryocytes

contain proteins that promote blood clotting

hemostasis

process to stop bleeding

hemostasis steps

vascular spasms

platelet plug formation

coagulation

what happens- vascular spasms

immediate vasoconstriction

platelet plug formation- what happens

platelets adhere to exposed collagen and each other

coagulation

clot formation

what happens to blood clots after healing

clot retraction and thrombolysis after healing

clotting cascades- extrinsic pathway

happens quickly

starts wheen tissue factor leaks into blood from damaged tissues outside of vessel

clotting cascades- intrinsic pathway

slower

starts from activators within blood/damaged vessel wall

both extrinsic and intrinsic clotting cascades lead to…

prothrombinase

what does prothrombinase lead to

prothrombin → thrombin

thrombin helps form fibrin → blood clotting

blood clotting- how does vitamin K help

enables clotting factors to be sticky

blood clotting- how does calcium help

acts as glue that binds them to site of injury

positive feedback in platelet and coagulation phases

activated platelets → attract more platelets

clotting factors → activate more clotting factors

this speeds up clot formation and stops bleeding quicker

thrombolysis

breakdown/dissolution of a clot after vessel heals

surface antigens on erythrocytes

blood groups determined by antigens on RBC membrane and antibodies in plasma

ABO blood system- A type

A antigens, anti-B antibodies

ABO blood system- B type

B antigens, anti-A antibodies

ABO blood system- AB type

A and B antigens, no anti- antibodies

ABO blood system- O type

no A or B antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies

Rh blood system- Rh+

Rh antigen present

Rh blood system- Rh-

Rh antigen absent

does normal blood contain anti-Rh antibodies

No

how can a person make anti-Rh antibodies

a person must be exposed to Rh antigen before making antibodies

what happens in later pregnancies if the first pregnancy, mother is Rh- carrying an Rh+ fetus

mothers Anti-Rh antibodies can attack RBCs of Rh+ fetus

what does it mean to have compatible blood

recipients antibodies will not attack donor RBC antigens

Why can type O blood donate broadly

it has no A or B antigens, so it has nothing for antibodies to attack

why can type AB blood receive broadly

it has no anti A or anti B antibodies to attack to donor blood

why shouldn’t Rh- individuals receive Rh+ blood

it can trigger anti Rh antibody formation

what happens if wrong blood type is transfused

antibodies bind to donor RBC antigens

agglutination occurs

RBCs can rupture

heart location in body

located in mediastinum of thoracic cavity

anterior to vertebral column, posterior to sternum

superior to diaphragm

2/3 to left of midline

what are the 4 chambers of the heart

right and left atria

right and left ventricle

heart- atria functions

receiving blood

heart- ventricle functions

pumping/outgoing chambers

surface features of the heart- auricles

exterior pouches on atria → increased atrial capacity

surface features of the heart- sulci

grooves on outer surface that mark locations of coronary vessels

double pump system of the heart

right and left sides pump blood through different circuits

right side → pulmonary circuit

left side → systemic circuit

allows for efficient delivery of O2 to body tissues

what encloses the heart

pericardium

2 parts of the pericardium

fibrous pericardium

serous pericardium → parietal and visceral layers with pericardial fluid in between

where do coronary arteries branch off

the aorta

what do the coronary arteries supply

the heart muscle with oxygen rich blood

how do the coronary arteries work

cardiac veins collect oxygen poor blood from heart tissue

coronary sinus receives O2 poor blood from cardiac veins and empties into right atrium

major vessels of the heart

superior vena cava

inferior vena cava

pulmonary trunk/pulmonary arteries

pulmonary veins

aorta

superior/inferior vena cava

brings O2 poor blood to heart from upper and lower body → right atrium

pulmonary trunk/pulmonary arteries

carry oxygen poor blood from right ventricle to lungs

pulmonary veins

return oxygen rich blood from the lungs to left atrium

aorta

carries oxygen rich blood from left ventricle to body

what does “great vessels” mean

very large and entering/leaving the heart directly

right atrium function

receives O2 poor blood from vena cava and coronary sinus

right ventricle function

pumps O2 poor blood to pulmonary trunk

left atrium function

receives O2 rich blood from pulmonary veins

left ventricle function

pumps O2 rich blood into aorta (thickest chamber and forms apex of heart)

septa

separate right and left sides of heart, helping prevent mixing of O2 rich/poor blood

atrioventricular (AV) valves

between atria and ventricles, prevent backflow into atria

what is the right AV valve also called

tricuspid valve

what is the left AV valve also called

biscuspid or mitral valve