Moral Basis of Politics Midterm

According to Hobbes, what is the state of nature?

A condition without government or authority, where everyone is equal and free but constantly in danger; life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

Why is the state of nature a state of war according to Hobbes?

Because everyone has a right to everything and no common authority exists, leading to competition, mistrust, and conflict.

What does Hobbes mean by the right of nature?

The liberty each person has to use their power for self-preservation by any means necessary.

What are the laws of nature in Hobbes’s theory?

Rational principles (like seeking peace and performing covenants) that reason dictates for self-preservation.

What does liberty mean for Hobbes?

The absence of external impediments; true liberty exists only under a sovereign who ensures peace.

What is a covenant in Hobbes’s theory?

A mutual agreement in which individuals consent to transfer their natural rights to a sovereign for the sake of peace and protection.
It creates the commonwealth, uniting people into one political body. Once made, the covenant cannot be broken without returning to the state of nature.

How is the commonwealth formed according to Hobbes?

Through the covenant, where each person authorizes a sovereign to act on their behalf, giving up their right to self-rule in exchange for safety.

Who or what is the sovereign in Hobbes’s view?

The artificial person or authority created by the covenant, possessing absolute power to maintain order and security.

What are the rights of the sovereign in Hobbes’s system?

To make and enforce laws, control the military, religion, and justice, and decide right and wrong—because subjects authorize all of their acts.

What is the difference between a multitude and a people for Hobbes?

A multitude is a crowd of individuals without unity; a people is a unified collective under one sovereign power.

What does Rousseau say about slavery?

It is unnatural and illegitimate; “to renounce liberty is to renounce being a man.”

What is the social pact in Rousseau’s theory and what problem does it solve?

It unites individuals while preserving their freedom: each gives themselves wholly to the community, forming the general will.

What are natural, civil, and moral liberty according to Rousseau?

• Natural liberty: Freedom to do whatever one desires.

• Civil liberty: Freedom under laws one has helped make.

• Moral liberty: Mastery over one’s passions; autonomy and self-rule.

What is the difference between sovereignty and government in Rousseau’s view?

Sovereignty = collective law-making power (the people).
Government = executive power that enforces laws.

What is the distinction between citizens and subjects for Rousseau?

Citizens are participants in sovereignty (make laws); subjects are those who obey those laws.

What is the general will according to Rousseau?

The collective will that aims at the common good — not the sum of individual preferences.

Who is the legislator in Rousseau’s thought?

A wise founder who shapes the moral and civic identity of a people but does not rule.

What are private will and partial associations in Rousseau’s view?

Private will = self-interest; partial associations = factions that distort the general will.

How can the sovereign be protected from government corruption according to Rousseau?

Through civic education, frequent assemblies, and public vigilance.

What is alienation in Marx’s theory?

The condition in which something that should be connected to us — our labor, our creativity, our humanity — confronts us as an external or hostile force under capitalism.

What is alienation from the product of labor according to Marx?

Workers produce objects they do not own or control; the product becomes alien, belonging to someone else — a symbol of their exploitation.

What is alienation from the labor process according to Marx?

Work becomes repetitive, deadening, and robotic. Labor, which should express human creativity, becomes a mechanical routine serving profit.

What is alienation from species-being (species-essence) in Marx’s view?

Humans lose their natural ability to express themselves through meaningful work for the betterment of humankind; work no longer reflects our shared humanity.

What is alienation of man from man according to Marx?

Economic systems pit individuals against each other — competition replaces cooperation, isolating humans from one another.

How does the division of labor contribute to alienation for Marx?

By separating workers into specialized, repetitive tasks, it denies them any connection to the whole product and reduces them to cogs in a machine.

Why does Marx say work under capitalism is dehumanizing?

Because labor, which should be a creative act of freedom, becomes mundane and imposed — serving the short-term interests of capital rather than humanity’s collective good.

What is the role of economic production in Marx’s theory of history?

Economic production is the foundation of society — whoever controls the means of production controls social and political life

What is class struggle according to Marx?

The driving force of history — conflict between those who own the means of production (bourgeoisie) and those who labor (proletariat).

How do technological developments lead to revolution according to Marx?

Over time, technological progress makes existing class relations unsustainable; the productive forces outgrow the social system, causing it to “explode” and create new class relationships.

What is the dialectical process of historical change in Marx’s view?

Each system contains contradictions that lead to its destruction — feudalism gives rise to capitalism, capitalism to socialism, and finally communism.

What is the revolution of the proletariat according to Marx?

As capitalism expands, more people are pushed into the working class until the proletariat grows strong enough to overthrow the bourgeoisie.

What happens in the socialist stage for Marx?

Society redistributes according to contribution — “from each according to his work.” It’s a transitional phase between capitalism and communism.

What happens in communism according to Marx?

Class distinctions disappear, and resources are shared according to need — “from each according to his ability, to each according to his need.” Humanity benefits from superabundance.

What is ideology in Marx’s view?

The ruling ideas of each era are those of the ruling class; ideology makes the current social order appear natural and unchangeable.

How does ideology change with communism in Marx’s theory?

A shift in material conditions (economic structure) brings a shift in ideology — new forms of consciousness arise once class divisions are gone.

Why is class struggle the source of revolution according to Marx?

Because the relationship between classes eventually becomes unsustainable as productive forces evolve and power dynamics shift.

How does capitalism create its own gravediggers according to Marx?

By concentrating wealth and pushing more people into the proletariat, capitalism builds the very class that will overthrow it.