geography revision feb 2026

explain the formation of a limestone pavememt

• limestone is made of the horizontal cracks called bedding planes and vertical cracks called joints

• during glaciation, ice scraped away the topsoil to leave the limestone exposed

• this means rainwater can flow down the bedding planes making it a permeable rock

• rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming a weak carbonic acid

• the acidic rainwater reacts with the alkaline limestone and dissolves it. this process is called carbonation

• over time this carbonation widens and deepens joints to for gaps called grykes

• between the grykes are rectangular blocks of limestone called clints

explain the formation of a swallow hole

• rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming a weak carbonic acid which erodes the surface of the limestone where the acidic water dissolves the minerals in the limestone

• over time the joints are eroded and made wider and deeper

• when a stream meets the liemstone it enlarges the joints further

• the water seeps downwards through rock layers where the joints have been enlarged by chemical weathering

• eventually the stream will disappear down a swallow holw and flow along underground channels

explain the formation of a cave/cavern

• the joints and bedding planes makes limestone permeable

• water flows underground through a swallow hole, along bedding planes and down joints until it reaches impermeable rock

• the slight acidity of the water dissolves the limestone called carbonation

• a cave/cavern forms when there are many joints and bedding planes close together so that large areas of rock in the same space dissolve quickly

• this leaves a large space underground called a cave/cavern

• the water travelling through the cave can rise and if it is carrying rocks and stones they can further erode the cave walls through abrasion

explain the formation of stalagmites/stalactites

• as water flows underground it carries dissolved limestone with it

• water drips from the roofs of caverns very slowly and evaporates

• as the water evaporates, a crystalised deposit of calcite is left on the cavern roof

• over a very long period of time, they buld up to form long, thin deposits which grow downwards like icicles hanging from the ceiling of a cavern called stalactites

• some drops of water fall to the floor of the cavern where they splash and evaporate

• the splash spreads the deposit of calcite and it builds up on the floor

• short, wide, stumpy features grow upwards from the ground called stalagmites

explain why sheep farming is found in the yorkshire dales

• high rainfall and low temperatures. sheep are hardy and can survuve the harsh weather conditions

• unsuited to growing crops as limestone is permeable so there is very little water near the surface that plant roots can reach

• lack of sunshine and thin soils means the climate is unsuitable for growing crops

• very mountainous and sheep have nimble hooves suited to the steep slopes and rocky outcrops

explain why quarrying is found in the yorkshire dales

• limestone is easy to shape and use for building due to the horizontal bedding planes and vertical cracks.

• it is also needed in steelwork, in chemical industries and for making cement

• the biggest single use for both the limestone and the gritstone is in making aggregate for road surfaces

• as limestone is the most important raw material for making cement, some cement works have also located here

• there are not many other manufacturing industries in the dales, as it is too remote from raw materials and markets

explain why tourism is found in the yorkshire dales

people are attracted to the interesting and unusual scenery such as limestone pavements, caverns, gorges, and stalactites and stalagmites

• hill walkers are attracted to the rolling hills and scenery

• the pennine way runs through the dales

• exposed limestone crags and ideal for rock climbing

• there are also many caving and potholing clubs

explain the different land use conflicts in the yorkshire dales - farmers vs tourists

• walkers leave gates open so livestock can escape. this costs the farmer time to locate the sheep

• dogs chase sheep, which is especially dangerous during lambing season as dogs can scare the ewes and cause them to miscarry

• dry stone walls are damaged as people climb over them and they are epensive to repair

• increased litter which animals can eat causing increased vet bills for farmers

• farmers vehicles can slow down tourists on roads causing congestion and air pollution

• tourists can park in front of farmers gates blocking access to fields

quarries vs tourists

• quarries create visual polliution as they create large ugly holes in the landscape

• the blasting at quarries creates noise pollution and spoils the peace and quiet in the landscape

• lorries from the quarries can hold up traffic and block narrow roads creating traffic congestion and increasing air pollution

quarries vs farmers

• the dust and waste from the quarries wash into nearby streams making them unsuitable for farm animals to drink from

• when dust settles on fields the crops do not grow as well because the sunlight cabbot get through to them

walkers leave gates open

• farmers display “keep gate closed” signs

• spring loaded self closing gates

dogs chase sheep

• park rangers are employed to prevent problems by encouraging responsible tourism

• signs to educate visitors

stone walls are damaged

• more stiles are put in to prevent people knocking off stones and costing the farmer money to repair it

tourists drop litter

• remove litter bins to encourage people to take their litter home

traffic congestion - cars parked on grass verged destroying plants

• more car parks - farmers open up fields during peak times to stop cars parking on roads

• the malham tarn shuttle bus transports people from the train station up to malham

dust is spread out over the roads and crops are damaged as it blocks out the sun

• water is sprayed before blasting and lorries are washed down before they leave the quarry

the blasting at quarries creates noise pollution and spoils the peace and quiet in the landscape

• blasting is restricted to certain times of day and doesnt happen during bank holidays when visitors are at their peak

quarries create visual pollution as the create large ugly holes in the landscape

• quarries are screened by planting native trees around them

• when they are no longer in use they are restored and turn into nature reserves

changes in the cbd

• large shopping centres protect shoppers from the cold, wet scottish weather. the st james quarter has been built to improve the visual appearance of the city

• st andrews square has been opened up as public space to create a green space and attractive environment

• the trams have been built o reduce air and noise pollution in the city centre. it has also reduced journey times from the CBD to the airport improving communication for tourists

• high street shops have been closing down leaving many empty units along princes street. this is because they cannot afford the high rental values and cant compete with internet shopping and edge of city shopping centres. there have also been an increase of tourist shops and bargain stors along princes street as they take advantage of the empty properties

• more high end shops have opened such as harvey nichols and along multrees walk. this is to attract shoppers to the CBD and improve the economy

• redevelopment of old buildings into hotels because people have mroe leisure time for city breaks, it also boosts the tourist economy and encourages business travel

• the extension to the national gallery was built to encourage more tourists into the area

• 20mph speed limit has been introduces to make it safer for pedestrians and cyclists. more cycle lanes have been out in place to reduce traffic in the CBD and encourage cycling to make space for different road users.