R-Z

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment on an individual’s actions, proposed by Albert Bandura

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

reflex arc

the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, including a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between

Refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

regression

a reversion to immature patterns of behavior

rehearsal: maintenance

repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory

rehersal: elaborative

linking new information with existing knowledge to aid long-term memory storage

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

REM sleep behavior disorder

a sleep disorder in which individuals physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams during REM sleep

replication

repeating a research study to determine whether the findings are reliable and can be generalized

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of stress, adversity, or trauma

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

restoration theory

the theory that sleep is essential for revitalizing and restoring the physiological processes that keep the body and mind healthy

reticular formation

part of the midbrain that plays a role in being awake

reticular activating system

a network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal and attention

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

retrograde amnesia

a form of amnesia where someone is unable to recall past memories before the onset of amnesia

reuptake

the process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic neuron after being released

reuptake inhibitors

drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability in the brain

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Rogers, Carl

a humanistic psychologist who developed client-centered therapy

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective personality test in which individuals describe what they see in a series of inkblots, revealing unconscious thoughts

Sample

a subset of individuals from a population used to represent the group being studied

scaffolding (Vygotsky)

a teaching method that helps students learn by building on prior knowledge and providing support structures

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots that represents the values of two variables, used to identify correlations

Schachter’s two-factor theory

emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal

Schema

a mental concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Scientific method

a series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions

secondary reinforcers

stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through their association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise)

secondary traits/dispositions

traits that are more preferences/attitudes

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

Self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that emphasizes three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

Self-efficacy

an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensation seeking theory

the theory that individuals vary in their desire for novel and intense experiences

sensorineural deafness

hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

sensory memory

a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

Sensory neurons (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

serial position effect

the tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)

Single-Blind Procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

situational attribution

attributing behavior to external causes, such as the environment or situation

Skewed

turned to one side

Skewed

a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution

Skinner, BF

considered the father of behavioral therapy. He once stated that with the ability to control a child's environment, he could raise a child to become anything he wanted

sleep apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep

Sleep cycle

a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep

social clock

a culturally preferred timeline for life events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

social comparison

evaluating one's own abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

Social Desirability bias

tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social inhibition

the tendency for an individual's performance to decline when complex or poorly learned tasks are performed in the presence of others

social influence theory

the theory that hypnotic phenomena are not unique to hypnosis but reflect normal social and cognitive processes

social learning theory

learning through observing others' behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

social norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

social trap

a situation where individuals pursuing their self-interest harm the collective well-being

social-cultural perspective

an approach that examines how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those who are dependent on them

Soma

cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus and other organelles

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that processes body sensations

somnambulism

sleepwalking, typically occurring during deep non-REM sleep

sound localization

the process by which the location of sound is determined based on the arrival time and intensity of sound at each ear

source amnesia

inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information was acquired

Spearman – The “g” factor

the general intelligence factor underlying all mental abilities, proposed by Charles Spearman

Sperry, Roger

the first to propose "split-brain" surgery to help epileptic patients

split-brain research

study of patients with severed corpus callosum to understand brain hemisphere specialization

split-brain research (contralateral hemispheric organization)

specific type of split-brain study focusing on how each hemisphere controls opposite sides of the body

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

stages of identity development

the developmental process through which individuals explore and commit to aspects of their identity

stages of language development

typical sequence in which language is acquired: cooing, babbling, one-word stage, two-word stage, and full sentences

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with a pretested group