Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
Generality
All languages have grammar
Parity
All grammars are equal
Mutability
Grammar changes over time
Prescriptive Rules of Grammar
Don’t end a sentence with preposition
Don’t split infinitives
Descriptive Grammar
Describes language behaviors (what people do say)
Free Morpheme
Un-happy (happy is free)
Bound morpheme
Un-happy (un is bound)
Stem
The main word
Reduplication
Replication of sound
Derivational Morphology
Creating new words by changing the meaning or category of existing words
Inflectional Morphology
Don’t change the basic category or meaning of the element they combine with
Analytic Typology
Most words are simple; each grammatical element is shown as a distinct word (Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.)
Synthetic Typology
Allow complex word forms (3 types: Agglutinative, Fusional, Polysynthetic)
Grammatical categories
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions
Functional categories
Tense, person, number, case, aspect, voice
Active articulators
Do all or most of the moving during a speech gesture; usually the lower lip or tongue
Passive components
Makes little or no movement; connected to the skull
Consonants
Produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract that impedes the flow of air from the lung
Vowels
Are produced without such restriction
Bilabials
Bring both lips together
Labiodentals
Touch bottom lip to the upper teeth
Interdentals
Insert tip of tongue between upper and lower teeth
Alveolars
Raise tongue to the alveolar ridge
Palatals
Raise the front part of the tongue to the palate (Y sound) (mission, measure, cheap, judge, yoyo)
Velars
Raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate (velum) (back, bag, bang)
Glottals
Let the air flow through the open glottis and past the tongue and lips (Ha)
Stop/Plosive: P, B, M, T, D, N, K, G, N
The airstream is completely blocked in the oral cavity for a short period
They are difficult to pronounce without a vowel
Fricative: F, V, S, Z, Sh,
The airflow is so obstructed it causes friction
Easily pronounced without vowel
Affricates: CHa, Ja
These sounds are produced by a total closure followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces an effect characteristic of a fricative
Sonorants: L, R, J, W
There is some obstruction in the airstream, not enough to cause real friction
Voicing
When throat vibrates
Nasality
If plug nose, you can’t pronounce
Rime/Rhyme
Combination of nucleus and coda
Onset
Before nucleus
Coda
After nucleus
Minimal Pairs
Two different words that differ in one sound in the same position
Merger
Start pronouncing vowels the same “a” and “o” in caught and cot
Allophones
Different realizations of a phoneme (tick, stick)
Not contrastive, do NOT change word meanings
Do NOT form minimal pairs
Free Variation
Allophones occur (mock, mop) (fourth floor - higher class, foeth floor - lower class)
Lexically Significant Pitch
Distinguishes the meaning of utterances
Syllable Pitch
Each syllable carries in its nucleus at least one significant pitch unit
Register Tones
Have level, state pitches (low tone, mid tone, high tone)
Contour Tones
Involve pitch shifts (falling tone, rising tone, falling rising, rising falling)
Agglutinative Languages
A word consists of fully segmentable morphemes
Fusional Languages
Many grammatical elements are not clearly segmentable; grammatical affixes have multiple grammatical features
Polysynthetic Languages
A word is composed of many bound morphemes; a whole sentence can be expressed by a word (Mohawk, Chukchi, Ainu, etc.)