Neuropsychology - Exam 1 Review

Cardiac Hypothesis

By Aristotle
- He believed thinking and feeling had to come from a warm place

Brain Hypothesis

By Hippocrates
- He observed changes in behavior after individuals were brain damaged

Humor Theory

By Galen and Hippocrates
- Based on 4 fluids

Ventricular Theory

By Aristotle
- Different faculties are part of specific ventricles, rising in importance
- It goes common sense, reasoning, complex thinking

Vesalius

Corpse thief who managed to force the church to relent and let him experiment on criminals

Phrenology

Looking at the size of bumps on the skull as a way to see how strong someone is in the faculty corresponding with that specific bump.

Who was behind phrenology?

Franz Joseph Gall
Johann Casper Spurzheim

Broca and Wernicke

They found a more normal explanation for localization of function
- They saw brain damage in patients corresponding to specific functions being damaged

Pierre Flourens

Came up with equipotentiality after removing parts of rat and cat brains and observing how they recovered

Mass Action

Learning takes place through the cerebral cortex

Hughlings Jackson

Came up with the hierarchy of organization
- As you go superior in the brain, the functions of that part of the brain are more and more complex

Luria

Came up with different units for the brain.
- From frontal to occipital, they’re dubbed 3-1-2.
- Unit 1 performs the most basic functions.
- Unit 2 integrates sensory info.
- Unit 3 allows you to think

Microglia

Glial cells stemming from macrophages that serve as garbage cleanup

Gray matter

Composed of neuronal bodies and becomes more concentrated the lower in the spinal cord you go

Fibers

Bundles of myelinated axons

Tracks

Bundles of fibers in the CNS

Pathways

Bundles of tracks

Proximal cause of multiple sclerosis

Autoimmune

Distal cause of multiple sclerosis

Genetic with an environmental trigger

Symptoms of multiple sclerosis

• Sensory

• Motor

• Cognitive

• Emotional

How many people in the US are affected by multiple sclerosis?

1 in 2000

Where are you less likely to be affected by multiple sclerosis?

Closer to the equator

What is the age onset of multiple sclerosis?

20-40s

What gender is more likely to suffer from multiple sclerosis?

Women

What are the 3 components of multiple sclerosis?

Attacks, progression and symptoms

What does the ectoderm become?

Hair and nails

What does the endoderm become?

Stomach and liver

What does the mesoderm become?

Muscles and bones

When does the anterior pore of the neural tube close?

24-28 days

When does the posterior pore of the neural tube close?

26-28 days

Anencephaly

Occurs when the anterior pore doesn’t close

Why is anencephaly more serious than spina bifida?

Anencephaly is more likely to occur in death

Lissencephaly

A smooth brain condition occurring when migration is defective

Dural folds

Separates the brain into two hemispheres and separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

Subarachnoid space

Between the arachnoid mater and the Pia mater
- Has blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid

Subarachnoid hemorrhage

A blood vessel in the subarachnoid cavity tears and leaks into the space

Subdural hematoma

Clotted blood in the subdural space

Where does cerebrospinal fluid come from?

Comes from the 4 ventricles and is circulated in the subarachnoid space

Arachnoid villi

Drains cerebrospinal fluid into the venous system

How much cerebrospinal fluid is made a day?

450mL

How much CSF is present in the ventricles and the subarachnoid space at any given time?

150mL

What does cerebrospinal fluid do?

It keeps the brain afloat to prevent it from crushing blood vessels and acts as a buffer so the brain doesn’t smash against the skull. It also distributes chemicals and removes waste as it circulates.

What structures are the lateral ventricles associated with?

The limbic system and the two hemispheres

What structures are the 3rd ventricle associated with?

The hypothalamus and thalamus

What structures are the 4th ventricle associated with?

It is associated with the medulla (myelencephalon) and the pons and cerebellum (metencephalon)

What structure is the cerebral aqueducts associated with?

The medulla

Blood-brain barrier

Network of capillaries with epithelial cells with tight junctions and astrocytes preventing things from entering the brain

Area postrema

Vomiting center located around the 4th ventricle that allows blood to pass through in order to test if a person should vomit or not

Where does the spinal cord end?

Around L1-2 where the cauda equina forms

Where are lumbar punctures performed and why?

Around L3-5 between the vertebrae to safely acquire a sample of CSF

Where are epidurals performed and why?

Epidurals are more deep in order to usually anesthetize a specific area for a pregnant woman

Motor neurons

Efferent and multipolar
Somas are INSIDE spinal cord

Sensory neurons

Afferent and unipolar
Somas are NEXT TO spinal cord

Dorsal root ganglion

Cluster of sensory neuron cell bodies

Where is white and gray matter concentrated and why?

White matter is more concentrated the higher you go because the higher you go, the more information is being sent up.

Why is breaking the skull base dangerous?

There are holes in the base of the skull that nerves go through

Pons

Anterior and just below the main brain, it has neurons for reticular activation and connecting to the cerebellum

Flocculonodular lobe/Vestibulocerebellum

Part of cerebellum that accounts for balance and eye movement

Spinocerebellum

Part of cerebellum that regulates body and limb movements

Cerebrocerebellum

Part of cerebellum that regulates movement planning and evaluates sensory info

How many more axons go into the cerebellum than out?

40 times as many.

Another name for mesencephalon

Midbrain

Tectum

Roof of midbrain

Tegmentum

Middle part of midbrain

Superior colliculi

Associated with the eyes

Inferior colliculi

Associated with the ears

Substantia nigra

Produces dopamine that is sent to the basal ganglia which controls movement and coordination

Reticular formation

Network of neurons where the descending portion controls spinal cord motor neurons and ascending portion projects to cerebral cortex
From the mesencephalon to the metencephalon to the myelencephalon

Parkinson’s Disease

A movement disorder where the substantial nigra is found to be dying

What are the two main structures of the diencephalon?

The thalamus and hypothalamus

Thalamus

It acts as a relay station with connections all over the cerebral cortex

Ipsilateral

Something being on the same side of the thalamus and not having decussated yet

Limbic system

Associated with feeling and emotion

What are the three basal ganglia structures?

Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus pallidus

Main research strategies

Examining behavioral effects of brain damage
Brain imaging
Brain activity recording during behaviors
Examining effects of stimulating specific parts of the brain

Inflammation signs

Redness, Warmth, Swelling, Pain, Loss of Function

Calor

Warmth

Dolor

Pain

What happens during inflammation?

Vasodilation and tissue swelling

What kinds of cells give rise to cancer in the brain?

Meninges and glial cells

Meningiomas

Meningial cancer that composes 36% of local brain tumors but are generally benign

Acoustic neuromas

Schwann cell cancer better dubbed “Schwannoma”

What percent of local tumors are gliomas?

25%

Glioblastoma multiforme

Most aggressive and terrible glioma (malignant, local, and infiltrative) composing 15% of the 25% of gliomas

What percentage of brain tumors are metastatic?

40%

What are the most common metastatic cancers that lead to brain tumors?

Lung, breast, and melanoma

Ischemia

Not enough blood to the brain leads to hypoxia

Infarction

Tissue death

What happens when the anterior circulation suffers a TIA?

Temporary clumsiness, weak limbs, aphasia

What happens when the posterior circulation suffers a TIA?

Dizziness, double vision, numb or weak extremities

Transient ischemic attack

A temporary ‘stroke’ that serves as a warning for a greater oncoming stroke

Ischemic stroke

Longer recovery time

Hemorrhagic stroke

Shorter recovery time but lower survival rate

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges primarily caused by fungi
- Indicated by headaches and spinal inflammation

Herpes virus

Remains dormant until it leaves the cells and activates an immune response

Examples of neurotoxins

Mercury
Lead
Abusive substances
Glutamate Excitotoxin

Causes of OPEN traumatic brain injuries

Bullet wounds
Stabbings
Accidents

Concussion

MILD traumatic brain injury

Hematoma

Hemorrhagic rupturing of a blood vessel.

Edema

The brain swelling due to pressure