Psychology 102 - Midterm 1

Science

community following rules for observing, predicting and explaining the world.

Theories

possible explanations of why or how something works

Hypotheses

predictions about what should happen in a specific situation

Studies / Experiments

observational tests of a hypothesis

Universality

when formulation a hypothesis or theory, the number of people we believe it applies to.

To deal with biases and differences in opinion, scientists must have…

scientific skepticism, peer review, replication and falsifiable hypotheses’

Scientific Skepticism

do not get attached to any theory/hypotheses

Peer Review

send your conclusions for review from other scientist

Replication

Multiple studies done the same way should generate similar data

Falsifiable Hypotheses

make inflexible predictions that can be shows to be false with observation

To deal with impossibility of observation we…

develop new tools

To deal with unreliability of observation we….

use openness & double-blind experiments

Openness

all data should be publicly available

Double-Blind Experiments

whenever possible, neither the participant nor the person collecting the data should be aware of what the hypothesis is

Operational Definition

a description of a psychological proper in measurable, observable terms

Instrument

anything that measures the operational definition

a good instrument has…

construct validity, reliability, power/sensitivity

Construct Validity

it measures what it claims to measure

Reliability

it gives similar measurements

Power/Sensitivity

it can detect small differneces in the measure

Definition + Instrument =

Data: a collection of measurements

Study Design / Methods

different types of studies that are typically used in psychology

Correlational Studies

estimate the numerical prediction between two measure variables

Positive Correlation

Both go up (more sleep associated with more stress)

No Correlation

more sleep has no association with stress

Negative Correlation

one goes up other goes down (more sleep associated with less stress)

A correlation between two variables _____________ that one variable caused the other

does not mean

Directionality Problem

A might have caused B, or B might have caused A

Third Variable Problem

for any correlation, a third, unmeasured variable C (confound) may be the true cause of both the measures ones

Coincidence

correlations based on luck

Experiments

studies and observations used by scientists

independent variables

the variable manipulated

dependent variable

vairable measured and predicted by to caused by the IV

random selection/sampling

participants chosen randomly from the population for the study

random assignment

participants are put into the IV groups randomly

Solution to directionality

you control the direction by choosing which variable you manipulate and which you measure

solution to third vairable(s)

two groups will be theoretically identical in every third vairable, so only difference will be from the manipulation you made

solution to coincidence

studies are replicated by other researchers multiple times to make sure the result wasnt by chance

Complexity

hard to explain how neurons give rise to thoughts, feeling and actions

Variable

no two people ever feel, think, or say the exactly same thing under same circumstances

reactive

Human behaviour changes with perceived observation.

Demand Characteristics

observational settings influence behaviour

Naturalistic Observation

observing people in their natural environment to gather information

Fast vs. Slow Rats Study

Students who are told influential things report faster results than other students. Expectations can influence observatinns and reality.

Observer Bias

Observer expectations influence observations.

Normal Distribution

measurements is highest in the middle and creases symmetrically in both directions (bell curve)

Central Tendency (mode, mean, median)

Mode: most observed measurement

Mean: average

Median: the value which is in the middle

Range

largest measurement MINUS the smallest measurement

Standard Deviation

Statistic that describes how each of the measurements in a frequency distribution differs from the mean

Internal Validity

an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships

External Validity

an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a representative way

Case Method

procedure for gathering scientific information by studying a single individual

Type I Error

Occurs when researchers conclude that there is a casual relationship between two variables, when in fact there is not

Type II Error

Occurs when researchers conclude that there is not a casual relationship between two variables, when in fact, there is

Informed Consent

verbal agreement to participate in a study may be an adult who has been informed of all the risk that participation may entail

Fredoom from coercion

it is unethical to offer people large of amounts of money to do something they may otherwise decline to do. Psychologist may not coerce participation

Protection from harm

if there are two equally effective ways to study something, psychologist must use the safe method. If no safe method, the psychologist may not perform the study

Deception

Psychologist may use deception only when it is justified by the study’s scientific, educational, or applied value and when alternative procedures are not feasible

Debriefing

Psychologist must afterwards provide a debriefing, which is a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of the study.

Confidentiality

Psychologist are obligated ot keep private and personal information obtained during a study confidential

Intelligence

the general ability to solve novel problems and learn from experience; it is about aptitude not achievement

Psychological Factor of Intelligence

an element of psychology that predict performance in a specialized domain, but not others

General Intelligence Factor (g)

the hypothesized single factor of intellignece that explains aptitude in all domains of knowledge

Specific Factor (s)

the hypothesized individual factors of intelligence that explain aptitude in specialized domain of knowledge on top of g

Independent Factor theories

intelligence is many non-overlapping abilities, each unrelated to the others

Hybrid Theory of Intelligence

intelligence is a group interrelated factors, with g at the top ‘fueling’ them all, various middle level abilities after and specific tasks underneath that

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

learning new information and solving novel problems

Crystalized Intelligence (Gc)

apply knowledge learned from experience

Standardized test

a test which

1. Has a highly controlled and guided administration protocol

2. Gives a score that shows your performance relative to the general population

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

the standard unit of intelligence; 100 is the average score, and 15 is one standard deviation

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-V)

most popular test used today, based on a hybrid mode of intelligence

• vocabulary

• digit span

• block design

• arithmetic

• etc…

Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)

the total performance on the wais-v, and the best correlate to the concept of g

Raven’s Progressive Matrices

a non verbal intelligence test based on solving rules that create patterns in pictures; good measure of Gf

Issues with IQ

• Education

• Test taking ability

• Stereotypes

• Cultural Bias

Individual Differences

differences in psychological traits across people

… they come from:

1. Genetic Variability

2. Environmental Variability

3. Their Interaction with eachother

Genetic Determinism

the (false) belief that if a person carries some set of genes, their expressed phenotype is fixed and immutable

• genes increase profitability of phenotype

• no single gene predicts a single trait

• genetics predict at the level of population, not the individual

Quasi Experiments

Study design where the independent variable occurs naturally but has no random assignment or selection

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins sharing 50% of their genes

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

twins sharing 100% of their genes

What predcits IQ?

education, home environment, birth weight, birth order

Flynn Effect

Average intellignece increases with each successive generation

Scientific Objectivity

scientific theories should be accepted on the basis of scientific merit; personal opinions and cultural values should not influence this

Phenology

Discredited attempt to assess intelligence by measuring brain size through skull bumps.

The Bell Curve

a 1994 book advocating for changes in public policy to protect high IQ individuals and reduce production for low IQ individuals

Two Factor Theory of Intelligence

persons performance on a test is due to a combination of general cognitive ability and specific abilities that are unique to the test

Emotional Intelligence

ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning

Analytic Intelligence (triarchic intelligence)

ability to identify and define problems and to find strategies for solving them

Creative Intelligence (triarchic intelligence)

ability to generate solutions that other people do not

Practical Intelligence (triarchic intelligence)

ability to implement these solutions in every day scenarios

Stereotype Threat

anxiety associated with the possibility of confirming others people stereotypes about ones group

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

well researched clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems

Self-Actualizing Tendency

the human motive toward realizing our inner potential

Flow

engagement in tasks that exactly math ones abilities creates a mental state of energized focus that is called flow

existential approach

school of thought that regard personality as governed by an individuals ongoing and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death

self esteem

the exten which an individual likes, values and accepts the self

Self Serving Bias

people tend to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures

Narcissism

grandiose view of the self, combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others

State Differences

temporary differences in peoples psychology

Trait Differences

enduring differences in peoples psychology

Personality

an enduring style of behaving, thinking, and feeling