AQA A-Level Religious Studies - Virtue Ethics

Define virtue

a disposition/ character trait which is to be valued.

Give two examples of virtues

courage and justice.

Where has virtue ethics been re-emphasised?

In an essay published by British philosopher Elizabeth Anscombe in 1958. She recommended a more Aristotelian approach to ethics which pays attention to human psychology.

Why do many believe they cannot fit into traditional moral systems?

Because certain rules seem unfair and may prioritise the the protection of the criminal compared to the victim.

What does 'arete' mean?

Virtue

Who did Aristotle write his ethics for? Why was this problematic?

He wrote for adults who governed each Greek city- he observed their virtues. Many view them as problematic as they are held to be elitist and cannot be applied to whole population. However, his ethical theory can be applied to all in a modern context.

Why is virtue ethics deemed as teleological?

There is some final end to which all activities are directed.

What do most believe is the final end for humans? How did Aristotle reach this conclusion?

Happiness

eudaimonia/ human flourishing. Some ends are subordinated to higher ends.

What does 'ergon' mean?

Function

'work' or 'accomplishment'- something that fulfills its function.

Give an example of something that fulfills its ergon.

A good knife fulfils its function if it is sharp and cuts well.

Explain the Function Argument

• everything has a function
• goodness consists in performing one's function well
• everything has a soul and the nature of the said soul determines the function
• for example, a plant fulfils its function by taking in food and growing

Define/ explain the concept of the soul. Then, explain the concept of the human soul.

The form or blueprint of the body- does not refer to a non-physical aspect of humans.

The human soul is characterised by the exercise of reason/ rational thought. Aristotle concluded this is unique to humans. The end purpose for humans is focused on the rational soul.

Define telos and how will this be achieved according to Aristotle.

The end purpose for human beings and this will be achieved (as eudaimonia) when reason is exercised well.

Give a quote which explains eudaimonia.

'… an activity of the soul in accord with virtue, and if there are several virtues, then in accord with the best and most complete one.' - Aristotle

How does Aristotle believe moral virtue should be assessed in a person's life?

Over their whole life.

According to Aristotle, how is the human soul split?

• Non-rational
• Rational

What is the non-rational soul?

Moral virtues such as courage.

What is the rational soul?

Intellectual virtues such as doing maths or philosophy.

Which virtues are the most important?

The intellectual virtues formed by the rational soul as they are governed by reason.

How are moral virtues formed?

By habit and are helped by the rational soul and particularly practical wisdom.

Why are 'virtuous people' important?

By nature, humans are neither good nor evil and therefore have to be trained. This training must begin as soon as possible as children are influenced by their role models, i.e. their parents.

= becoming virtuous does not mean learning rules, it means acquiring goodness through the imitation of virtuous people.

What two things does Aristotle believe a virtuous person must be?

a). they must know what they are doing in the situation
b). they must choose to act virtuously

= the problem with this is that humans are not mind readers, only the moral agent knows if they meet these circumstances.

What is the aim of the Doctrine of the Mean and what is a mean?

To help people act virtuously. The median between two extremes.

• choice means rational deliberation about what to do
• the mean is relative to each individual
• takes into account the specific circumstances

Name the two extremes of virtues.

The vices of 'excess' and 'deficiency'

Define phronimos.

The man of practical wisdom and in Aristotle's system is best qualified to define virtuous behaviour in any situation. Acts as a guide.

What is the 'mean' also referred to?

The golden mean.

Define temperance.

The virtue of self-control.

Fear and confidence: state the excess, deficiency and virtue.

Excess: recklessness
Virtue: courage
Deficiency: cowardice

Anger: state the excess, deficiency and virtue.

Excess: short temper
Virtue: good temper
Deficiency: apathy

Explain further the virtue of courage.

• Aristotle is specifically talking about the threat of death in battle- those who show fear would be cowardly and courage means to overcome this fear so that you do not show it. It also means not acting rashly to get yourself killed
• the mean of courage would have to be appropriate to the situation
• courage is not facing danger in fears of punishment

Explain further the virtue of Justice.

• Justice considers the good of others as an end in itself- altruistic virtue
• Aristotle talks about justice in two senses: justice is a virtue and it is one that has no mean
• Justice/ the law unites all the other virtues- people have to be many virtues to be just
• justice in a distributional sense- all the goods in the community should be distributed so that each person receives what is directionally proportional to their merit
• justice in a rectifying sense- restoring the distribution of grain and loss between two people
• the moral agent is responsible for acts of injustice which they do voluntarily, compared to ignorantly

Did Aristotle believe virtuous acts could be involuntary?

Only voluntary acts can be virtuous. They must involve human will. A proper intention on the basis of thorough deliberation.

Define 'theoria'.

Human contemplation.

Explain what Aristotle believed about contemplation.

• human contemplation is an intrinsic act, done for ints only purposes
• emphasises the distinction between humans and animals, in terms of souls: humans have the unique ability to reason and make judgements based on that reasoning
• theoria allows studies into science/scientific method
• this is because humans can contemplate the natural environment

Why is it difficult for Aristotle's ethic to be translated onto modern society?

The virtues discussed by Aristotle had the context of Greece in the 4th century BCE.

Outline four strengths of virtue ethics.

1). the theory is holistic

the whole individual is considered over their whole life. Their 'virtuousness' is not defined by one single event.
2). it values the moral character above following rules.
3). it allows for moral judgement in separate situations, instead of conforming to rules.
4). doctrine of the mean - flexible and considers each individual separately.

Outline four weaknesses of virtue ethics.

1). it ignore cultural relativism - what may be virtuous in one society may not be considered the same in another.
2). issues with his theory being a circular argument - how should we behave? virtuously. What is a virtuous act? done by someone virtuous. How does someone become virtuous? by acting virtuously. Not as clear as one thinks.
3). less useful for national/international politics as the gov cannot consider/make decisions for each individual character
4). a culture may not have virtuous role models - e.g., Hitler & nazi party