AP Psychology: Heredity, Brain, Sleep, and Consciousness Study Guide

Nurture

Debate concerned with whether behavior is determined mainly by genetic inheritance (nature) or by environment and experience (nurture).

Nature

Psychologists on the 'nature' side believe that behaviors and traits originate from our genetics; we are predisposed to certain conditions by what has been passed down from our parents and other ancestors.

Nurture (Psychology)

Psychologists on the 'nurture' side believe that behaviors and traits develop during our upbringing; we learn proper ways to behave and interact with the world from society and other people in our lives.

Family Studies

Researchers assess heredity influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait.

Twin Studies

Researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

Identical Twins

Emerge when a single fertilized egg splits for an unknown reason; they have exactly the same genetic blueprint.

Fraternal Twins

Result when two separate eggs are fertilized simultaneously; no more alike in genetic makeup than any two siblings.

Adoption Studies

Assess heredity influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.

Interplay of Heredity and Environment

When it comes to behavioral traits, both nature and nurture seem to have an effect.

Evolutionary Psychology

Theoretical perspective that analyzes behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive significance.

Natural Selection

Heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to offspring.

Fitness

The reproductive success of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population.

Adaptation

An inherited characteristic that increased in a population because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged.

Peripheral Nervous System

Made up of nerves that lie outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors.

Afferent Nerve Fibers

Axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body.

Efferent Nerve Fibers

Axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System

Made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.

Fight-or-Flight Response

Organisms generally respond to threats by preparing physically for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight).

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Reflex Arc

Occurs when a signal is sent from a sensory organ to the spinal cord, which processes the information instead of passing it to the brain.

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

Soma

Also known as cell body; contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells.

Dendrites

The parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axon

A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Terminal Buttons

Small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters.

Synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

Myelin Sheath

Insulating material that encases neurons; speeds up transmission of signals that move along axons.

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells that support and protect neurons.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when the cell is inactive; a store of potential energy.

Action Potential

A very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon.

Refractory Period

The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin; about 1-2 milliseconds.

All-or-Nothing Principle

Either the neuron fires or it doesn't, and its action potentials are always the same size.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another.

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.

Dopamine (DA)

Contributes to control of voluntary movement and pleasurable emotions.

Serotonin

Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggression.

Norepinephrine (NE)

Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal.

Glutamate

Essential for learning, memory, and mood regulation.

GABA

Known for its calming effect; plays a role in controlling anxiety, stress, and fear.

Substance P

Regulates the functions of many cells; immune system function, bone fracture healing, stress responses, and inflammation.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

Activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles; contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory.

Endorphins

Contribute to pain relief and some pleasurable emotions.

Adrenaline

Secreted in conditions of stress; increases rates of blood circulation, breathing, and preparing muscles for exertion.

Leptin

Released by body fat into blood; helps regulate appetite, energy balance, and body weight.

Ghrelin

Produced in stomach; increases appetite and urge to eat.

Melatonin

Plays a role in the sleep-wake cycle; levels are highest at night.

Oxytocin

Involved in social bonding, relationship forming, and long-term emotional development; also involved in labor and delivery.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning.

Tolerance

Progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug as a result of continued use.

Withdrawal

The symptoms that a person has when they suddenly stop or cut back the use of an addictive substance.

Physical Dependence

When a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal.

Psychological Dependence

When a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving.

Addiction

Disease that affects a person's brain and behavior and leads to an inability to control the use of a drug.

Consciousness

The awareness of internal and external stimuli.

Circadian Rhythms

24hr biological cycles found in humans and many other species.

Jet Lag

When flying across several time zones, your biological clock keeps time as usual; you then go to sleep at the 'wrong' time and are likely to experience difficulty falling asleep or poor quality of sleep.

Sleep Apnea

Frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep.

Insomnia

Chronic problems in getting adequate sleep.

Narcolepsy

Disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking; occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep.

REM Sleep

A deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, and dreaming.

Non-REM Sleep

Consists of sleep Stages 1-4, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity.