Sociology Exam 2 prep

Rutgers Uni

Deviance

Nonconformity to a set of norms that most people in a society accept.

Crime

Deviance that violates formal laws.

Norms

Shared rules or expectations for behavior in society.

Sanction

A reward or punishment used to encourage conformity to norms.

Relative deprivation

Feeling deprived compared to others even if basic needs are met.

Absolute deprivation

Lacking the basic necessities needed for survival.

Differential association

Theory that deviance is learned through interaction with others.

Labeling theory

Theory that being labeled deviant can influence a person to continue deviant behavior.

Target hardening

Making it harder for crime to occur by increasing security or limiting access.

Community policing

Policing strategy focused on building relationships with the community to prevent crime.

Primary deviation

Minor deviance that does not seriously affect a person’s self-image.

Secondary deviation

Deviance that happens after a person accepts a deviant label.

Strain theory

Theory that deviance happens when people cannot achieve socially approved goals through legitimate means.

Conflict theory and deviance

Deviance is a response to social inequality and power struggles.

Broken windows theory

Idea that addressing small signs of disorder helps prevent more serious crime.

Stratification

A system of structured social inequality.

Class

A type of stratification based on income and wealth.

Intergenerational mobility

Movement up or down the social class ladder compared with one’s parents.

Intragenerational mobility

Movement up or down the social ladder within a person’s own lifetime.

Exchange mobility

Some people rise while others fall, but the overall class structure stays the same.

Life chances

Opportunities people have to improve their quality of life.

Socioeconomic status

Social position based on income, education, and occupation.

Bourgeoisie

The capitalist class that owns the means of production.

Proletariat

The working class who sell their labor for wages.

Contradictory class location

Position of people like managers who supervise workers but are also supervised.

Income

Money received from work, investments, or other sources.

Wealth

Total value of money and assets owned.

Sex

Biological differences between males and females.

Gender

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations linked to sex.

Gender role socialization

Process of learning expected gender behaviors.

Gender roles

Social expectations about how men and women should behave.

Gender typing

Learning behaviors and attitudes considered appropriate for one’s gender. typing

Intersectionality

Theory that multiple group memberships shape experience in unique ways.

Biological essentialism

Belief that social differences and hierarchies are rooted in natural or biological differences.

Feminist theories

Theories that argue gender inequality exists, is socially constructed, and should be challenged.

Liberal feminism

Feminist perspective that sees gender inequality as caused by unequal access to rights and resources.

Postmodern feminism

Feminist perspective that questions the idea that all women share the same experiences.

Glass ceiling

Invisible barrier preventing women from reaching top positions.

Glass escalator

Men in female-dominated fields are often promoted faster and more easily.

Race

Socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences.

Ethnicity

Shared cultural heritage, traditions, language, or ancestry.

Prejudice

Attitudes or beliefs about a group, often negative.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of people based on group membership.

Stereotyping

Oversimplified beliefs about members of a group.

Scapegoating

Unfairly blaming a group for society’s problems.

Institutional racism

Racism built into institutions and systems that produces unequal outcomes.

Racial microaggression

Subtle insult or slight directed at a racialized group.

Segregation

Physical separation of racial or ethnic groups.

Pluralism

Society where multiple groups maintain distinct identities while coexisting.

Migration

Movement of people from one place to another.

Diaspora

Dispersal of a people from their original homeland.

Affirmative action

Policies meant to address inequality by improving opportunities for disadvantaged groups.

Assimilation

Process by which minority groups adopt the culture of the dominant group.

Genocide

Intentional destruction or elimination of a group.

Ethnic cleansing

Forcibly removing a group from a region.

Scientific racism

False use of science to justify racial inequality.

Power

Ability to achieve desired ends even when opposed by others.

Authority

Legitimate use of power by a government.

Nation-state

Political entity where people with a shared identity are governed by their own.

Participatory democracy

System in which citizens directly take part in decision making.

Liberal democracy

Political system with voting rights, civil liberties, and participation in elections.

Populism

Political approach claiming to represent ordinary people against elites.

Power elite

Small group at the top of political, corporate, and military institutions with major power.

New power elite

Updated version of the power elite in contemporary society.

Military-industrial complex

Close relationship between military leaders, government, and defense industries.

Emile Durkheim

Important sociologist connected to deviance.

Robert K. Merton

Theorist associated with strain theory.

Max Weber

Argued that status and honor are as important as class in stratification.

Karl Marx

Focused on class conflict and inequality.

Pierre Bourdieu

Theorist linked to class and forms of capital.

C. Wright Mills

Theorist associated with the power elite.

Talcott Parsons

Linked to traditional gender roles.

Conflict theory

Society is shaped by inequality, competition, and struggles over power.

Informal negative sanction

Gossiping about someone for breaking local customs.

Target hardening example

Gated communities are an example of target hardening.

Differential association and labeling theory

Two interactionist theories for understanding deviance.

Intergenerational mobility example

A person born into a low-income family who later becomes very successful shows intergenerational mobility.

Gender roles/gender typing example

A woman doing household chores and childcare while her husband provides financial support illustrates gender roles or gender typing.

Glass escalator example

Men in female-dominated fields are often promoted more quickly and easily. (example)

Institutional racism example

Different care and outcomes in a hospital based on race or ethnicity.

Racial microaggression example

Asking a classmate of color whether affirmative action helped them get admitted.

Scapegoating example

Blaming immigrants for taking jobs or exploiting welfare.

Ethnic cleansing vs genocide

Ethnic cleansing means forcibly removing a group from a region, while genocide means intentionally destroying or eliminating a group entirely.

Authority example

A government’s legitimate use of power.

Nation-state example

A political entity where people with a shared culture and identity are governed by their own independent state. (example)

Participatory democracy example

Citizens directly deciding how part of a city budget is used.

Liberal democracy example

A system where people vote, participate politically, and have civil liberties like free speech. example

Power elite example

A small group at the top of political, corporate, and military institutions who hold most of the power. ex

Biological essentialism example

Believing some groups are naturally better suited for competition or higher status.