AP Psychology Unit 1 Study Set

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes which began with philosophers' thinking about thinking, and continuing as the biological/physiological study of the human mind and body.

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the STRUCTURE of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes FUNCTION- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

Jean Piaget

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

B. F. Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

Margaret Floy Washburn

Was the first female PhD in psychology. Memory tip: She "washed the burn" of the other early female psychologist who did not earn a PhD (but would probably should have).

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Edward Bradford Titchener

Structuralist psychologist whose efforts included introspection. This field of psychology failed due to the difficulties in practice, such as a variety of responses by participants.

Mary Calkins

First female president of the APA. Was refused the ability to receive a PhD from Harvard.

Dorothea Dix

A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. She succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. She served as the Superintendant of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War.

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Behaviorism (behaviorist psychology)

Field that believes that scientific investigation of psychology should be focused only on behavior you can see; investigates whether individuals/animals can be trained to respond to conditioning and/or reinforcements

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Introspection

A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings used in particular by structuralists

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Rosalie Rayner

Watson's assistant in Little Albert experiment (small child develops fear of rats)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection (associated with Darwin)

Psychodynamic

A psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior

humanistic psychology

A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Sociocultural Psychology

perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychometric Psychology

Looks at the measurement of behavior through the development of psychological tests; assesses issues of validity and reliability as well as statistical modeling

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

descriptive research methods

Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events. Can not explain behavior. May show show correlation but not causation.

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Hawthorne Effect (Observation Bias)

the behavior of study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

random sampling

The key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.

interview

A descriptive method in which data is collected via a face-to-face, over the phone, or virtual conversation with researchers and participants

experimental method

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication studies

repeated studies to obtain similar results

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

control variable

A variable that is kept constant during a controlled experiment.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

expectancy effects

the effect that the expectations of others can have on one's self-perception and behavior

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Single-blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

statistically significant

an observed effect so large that it would rarely occur by chance

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

random selection

A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

sample size

The number of subjects used in an experiment or study. Generally, the larger the better.

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other (+ or -)

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

no correlation

there does not appear to be a relationship between two sets of data

spurious correlation

an apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables that is caused by some other variable

mean

average

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

bimodal distribution

a frequency distribution having two different values that are heavily populated with cases

positively skewed distribution

A distribution where the scores pile up on the left side and taper off to the right.

negatively skewed distribution

A distribution in which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistically significant

an observed effect so large that it would rarely occur by chance

Ethics

the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions

Ethics in Psychology

rules of conduct recognized as appropriate to psychology and way of life to protect the wellbeing of participants of psychological research.

American Psychological Association (APA)

World's largest association of psychologists with around 152,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students

Federal Regulations

Laws enacted by the federal government.

Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)

a United States government organization that establishes guidelines for health information management compliance

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

a federal agency charged with enforcing regulations against selling and distributing adulterated, misbranded, or hazardous food and drug products

Department of Education

Provides advice and funding for schools

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)

created national standards to protect sensitive patient health information from being disclosed without the patient's consent or knowledge