Summation, Theories of Religion (12/01)

What defines religion, according to the class's early definition?

A system of belief that involves supernatural beings.

How do Abrahamic religions view God's nature and body?

God is a personal being with human-like characteristics (sees, feels, gets angry). Jews and Muslims believe God does not have a body.

How is Christianity different regarding God's body?

Christians believe God took human form at one point in history, which allowed for easier relation to God.

In Hinduism, what is the supreme, mysterious being, and who are the gods below it?

The supreme being is Brahman (mysterious and indescribable). Below Brahman are many gods like Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti, who are manifestations of Brahman.

How does Vishnu function like Jesus in Christianity?

Vishnu could become a human being by becoming an avatar, which allowed Hindus to picture Brahman in a human-like form.

What is the supreme being in Buddhism?

There is no supreme God. If anything is supreme, it is Dharma, the supreme law of nature/cosmos, which governs even the gods

How does Mahayana Buddhism differ from Theravada Buddhism regarding divine beings?

In Mahayana Buddhism, there are more powerful divine beings like Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (Buddhas in training) in the heavens, who can dispense good karma and help people achieve nirvana

What is the supreme being in Confucianism, and what is its character?

Heaven or Tin (tian) governs the universe, but its character is ambiguous—sometimes spoken of as a personal god, sometimes as an impersonal law of nature.

What is the ultimate goal in the afterlife for Hinduism and Buddhism?

To be liberated from reincarnation (the cycle of coming back and dying).

How is liberation achieved in Hinduism versus Buddhism?

In Hinduism, the soul merges with Brahman. In Buddhism (no soul), the goal is Nirvana, the extinction of the individual entirely

What is the main way to receive blessings in the supernatural realm?

Through actions such as making offerings, prayer, or engaging in meditation.

Which religion emphasized belief in certain doctrines more than others?

Christianity emphasized belief perhaps more than any other religion studied.

What is the purpose of ethics in the Abrahamic religions and Confucianism?

Living a moral life is pleasing to God (Abrahamic) or pleasing to Heaven/Tin (Confucianism).

What is the purpose of ethics in Buddhism?

Morality is good for the individual, not for a god. It brings good karma for a better rebirth and prepares one for nirvana/enlightenment by quelling cravings.

Give an example of a sacred text believed to be revealed by supernatural beings.

The Torah (Judaism) and the Koran/Qur'an (Islam)

Give an example of a sacred text believed to be written by human beings.

The rest of the Bible outside the Torah (Judaism), the New Testament (Christianity), and all scriptures in Buddhism and Confucianism.

How were the Vedas (Hinduism) received?

They were received from the supernatural realm through mystical experience, not directly from a personal God. Mystics "cognized" or learned the scriptures.

Which authority figures were considered direct intermediaries between God and humans?

Prophets in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, who had direct communication with God.

Which religions had monasticism (ascetic lifestyle, celibacy, poverty)?

Catholic Christianity and Buddhism.

Which religions spoke against monasticism?

Judaism, Protestant Christianity, and Confucianism, which believed one should live in the world and satisfy needs without overindulging.

What were the two common "strands" found in all the religions studied?

A philosophical strand (rational understanding) and a mystical strand (direct, intense experience of the supernatural, usually through meditation).

What three factors made the Modern Period challenging for traditional religions?

1. Science (seeming to undermine premises); 2. Democracy and human rights (freedom of religion, unsettling the idea of one truth); 3. A global world (no community lives in isolation, seeing other religions constantly).

What was the main reason the early method of holding Christianity as the ideal for judging other religions was deficient?

It was a very biased, Eurocentric/Western-centric way of looking at things.

What was the method of early anthropologists in the late 1800s to study the nature of religion?

To look at the religions of "primitive cultures" (e.g., in North America, Africa, Australia), believing they were ideal for seeing how religion originated (like a time machine).

Why did the "primitive cultures" approach fall out of favor?

1. No proof that these cultures resembled those of thousands of years ago; 2. It was considered arrogant and offensive (assuming Western culture was advanced and others primitive); 3. Anthropologists found these cultures were not so primitive and often sophisticated in their religion.

What is the modern, less offensive term for "primitive cultures"?

Indigenous.

What field of study and famous scholar emerged after the 1950s based on studying all religions as equals to find common features?

Comparative Religion. The champion was Romanian scholar Mircea Eliade.

What is the skeptical viewpoint about creating a theory of religion?

You cannot come up with an overarching theory; you can only study a particular manifestation of religion in a specific time/place. We don't have enough data on all 4,000 world religions to compare them.

What was E. B. Tyler's (founding figure of anthropology) theory of how religion arose?

Religion arose from intellectual reasoning (prehistoric people as philosophers/scientists). They began to believe in spirits/souls for two reasons: 1. Witnessing death (something unseen leaves the body). 2. Experiencing dreams (souls leave the body at night and visit). This led to believing everything that moves (animals, wind, stars) has a soul (Animism), and eventually to the idea of gods (beings with souls but no bodies)

What is the major problem with Tyler's theory?

No evidence for it. Tyler was speculating about prehistoric thought, and we have no written records from that pre-writing period to confirm his reasoning process.

What was Émile Durkheim's (forefather of sociology) theory about the primary function of religion?

The primary function of religion is to bring about social cohesion or social unity.

According to Durkheim, why do people believe in God and attribute values to him?

Belief in God serves a social function as a common belief that brings a culture together. By attributing moral values to God, the community is giving those values ultimate importance (the society's values are demonstrated in religion).

What part of religion was Durkheim most interested in, and what did he say was its real function?

Public ritual. He believed that while people participate to relate to the supernatural, the real, subconscious experience is one of social cohesion (bringing communities together).