PSYU3336 Advanced Topics in Personality and Individual Differences

What are the six main domains of personality?

Dispositional, Biological, Intrapsychic, Cognitive-experimental, Social and cultural, Adjustment.

What does the dispositional domain of personality focus on?

How personality remains stable over time.

What is the biological domain in personality theory?

It posits that we are a collection of biological systems that provide the foundation for behavior and emotion.

What does the intrapsychic domain explore?

Mental mechanisms, motives, and defense mechanisms.

What is the focus of the cognitive-experimental domain?

Cognition and subjective experience.

How does the social and cultural domain influence personality?

It examines how social and cultural factors shape our personality.

What does the adjustment domain address?

How we cope, adapt, and adjust to various situations.

What are the four types of personality assessment methods?

Self-report, Observational data, Test data, Life outcome data.

What are the criteria for effective personality assessments?

They must be reliable, valid, and generalizable.

What is the difference between experimental and correlational research designs in personality assessment?

Experimental design finds causal relationships through manipulation, while correlational design establishes relationships in natural settings without manipulation.

What is the purpose of case studies in personality research?

To generate hypotheses and identify patterns in individual psychological functioning.

What are the biological factors that influence personality?

Genes, brain activity, and evolution.

What does heritability measure in the context of personality?

The proportion of phenotypic variance attributable to genotypic variance.

If heritability is 0.50, what does that indicate?

50% of phenotypic variation is due to genotypic variation, with the rest attributed to environmental factors.

What methods are commonly used in behavioral genetics research?

Selective breeding, family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies.

What is the heritability percentage for neuroticism?

47% heritability.

What is the heritability percentage for extraversion?

42% heritability.

How heritable is the trait of shyness by age six?

44% heritable.

What is the heritability for smoking initiation and dependence?

60% for initiation and 70% for dependence.

What is the heritability percentage for marriage?

68% heritable.

What does the person-situation debate in personality psychology suggest?

Personality results from the interaction between genes and the environment.

What is passive genotype-environment correlation?

Parents provide both genetics and environment without prompting the environment.

What is reactive genotype-environment correlation?

Parents respond to children based on their genotypes.

What is active genotype-environment correlation?

Individuals with certain genotypes seek out environments that match their traits.

What impact do shared environments have on personality traits?

They have very little impact on personality traits.

What physiological measures can explain personality differences?

Heart rate, brain activity, and biochemical markers.

What technology is used to measure brain activity in personality research?

Electrodes, fMRI, and PET scans.

What is the significance of the Human Connectome Project?

It maps brain connections and pathways to investigate individual differences in personality traits.

What role do neurotransmitters play in personality?

They transmit nerve impulses and are linked to various personality traits.

What is the function of MAO in neurotransmitter activity?

It breaks down neurotransmitters after transmission.

What personality trait is dopamine associated with?

Pleasure-seeking behaviors and the reward system.

What is serotonin's role in personality?

It regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

What does norepinephrine activate in the body?

The sympathetic nervous system.

What does Cloninger's tridimensional personality model link to personality traits?

Dopamine to novelty seeking, serotonin to harm avoidance, and norepinephrine to reward dependence.

What personality differences are linked to circadian rhythms?

Circadian rhythms and brain symmetry are associated with personality differences.

What are the two basic formulations of traits in the dispositional domain?

Descriptors summarize typical behavior patterns, while causal mechanisms are internal forces that drive behavior and explain it.

What does the lexical approach to identifying traits suggest?

It suggests that language reflects important traits.

What method does the statistical approach use to identify traits?

It uses factor analysis to identify clusters of traits.

What is the theoretical approach to identifying traits guided by?

It is guided by theory, such as psychoanalytical theory.

Name one trait taxonomy model.

Eysenck's PeN model, Wiggins' circumplex model, Five Factor model, or Hexaco model.

What are the important assumptions of trait theory?

There are meaningful differences among individuals, stability over time, and consistency across situations.

What does the person-situation interaction assumption state?

It states that behavior is a function of both personality traits and situational influences.

What is trait activation theory?

It posits that certain situations activate specific traits.

What does aggregation imply about traits?

It implies that traits are only one influence on behavior, referring to a person's average level.

What is meant by 'mean level stability and change' in personality development?

It refers to the observation that Openness, Extraversion, and Neuroticism decline until age 50, while Conscientiousness and Agreeableness increase over time.

What does coherence in personality development refer to?

It refers to predictable changes in behavioral manifestations over time.

Adaptive/maladaptive behaviour

Behaviour that is beneficial or harmful in terms of survival and reproduction.

Mutations

Changes in DNA that can lead to new traits in organisms.

Environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA)

The ancestral environment in which a species evolved, shaping its adaptations.

Intrasexual competition

Competition between members of the same sex for mates.

Intersexual competition

Competition between members of the opposite sex for mates.

Adaptations

Beneficial qualities selected through evolution.

By products of evolution

Characteristics associated with selected traits that serve a useful but secondary function.

Noise or random variations

Neutral characteristics that are functionless byproducts of evolution.

Need to belong

The impact of social interaction on self-esteem.

Helping/altruism

Choosing kin over a stranger according to Hamilton's rule; helping strangers enhances social reputation.

Disgust

A defense mechanism against pathogens and disease.

Aggression

90% of homicide incidents are committed by males, with 81% male victims.

Parental investment theory

The time invested in offspring affects mate selection.

Jealousy

Women are more jealous over emotional infidelity, while males are more jealous of sexual infidelity.

Sexual strategies theory

Women seek quality mates and care for offspring, while men seek multiple partners for more offspring.

Mate preferences

Men show more preference for short-term mates than women, who prioritize resources.

Individual differences

Variations in behavior and traits influenced by environmental triggers.

Frequency-dependent selection

The success of a trait depends on its frequency relative to other traits in the population.

Optimum trait levels

Traits are viewed as more or less beneficial depending on the environment, e.g., neuroticism linked to childhood warfare.

Assumptions of evolutionary psychology

1. Adaptations are designed to solve a problem. 2. There are many adaptations. 3. Adaptations have a function.

Personality analysis

Examines human nature, sex differences, and individual differences in traits.

What motivates all human activity according to psychoanalytic approaches?

Psychic energy, which includes basic instincts like sex and aggression.

What are the three parts of the human mind in Freud's theory?

Conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

What does psychic determinism state?

Nothing happens by chance; all behavior is determined by the unconscious mind.

What are the three components of Freud's structure of personality?

ID (primitive, pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle, mediator), Superego (internalized ideals, morality).

What is the primary function of the Ego in Freud's theory?

To mediate between the demands of the ID and the constraints of reality.

What are the four types of anxiety identified in psychoanalytic theory?

Objective anxiety, neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety, and self-esteem anxiety.

What are defensive mechanisms in psychoanalysis?

Unconscious strategies used to manage anxiety, including repression, denial, projection, displacement, sublimation, reaction formation, and rationalization.

What is the key conflict during the oral stage of psychosexual development?

Weaning, with pleasure derived from the mouth, tongue, and lips.

What is the focus of pleasure during the anal stage of psychosexual development?

Expelling feces, with the key conflict being to achieve self-control.

What key conflict arises during the phallic stage of psychosexual development?

The Oedipal/Electra complex, with pleasure derived from the discovery of genitals.

What occurs during the latency stage of psychosexual development?

Little development occurs, with a focus on learning skills needed for adulthood and no key conflicts.

What is the goal of psychoanalysis?

To make the unconscious conscious and help individuals deal with their unconscious thoughts and feelings maturely.

What techniques are commonly used in psychoanalysis?

Free association, dream analysis, and projective techniques.

What criticism is often directed at Freud's research methods?

He relied on case studies of wealthy women and did not believe in experimentation or hypothesis testing.

What role does childhood play in contemporary psychoanalysis?

Childhood is seen as vital for personality development, influencing adult relationships.

What does Ego Psychology, as proposed by Erik Erikson, focus on?

Mastering the environment, achieving goals, and establishing identity through eight stages of development.

What does object relations theory emphasize?

Social relationships and their childhood origins, with primary caregivers becoming internalized.

What is the significance of early childhood attachment according to John Bowlby?

It is vital for psychological development, with concepts like separation anxiety.

What are the three attachment styles identified by Mary Ainsworth?

Securely attached, avoidantly attached, and ambivalently attached.

What are the three patterns of adult relationships identified in psychoanalytic theory?

Secure relationship styles, avoidant relationship styles, and ambivalent relationship styles.

What are motives in psychology?

Internal states that direct behavior towards a goal.

Define needs in the context of personality.

States of tension in a person which are reduced when the need is met.

What is the difference between alpha press and beta press?

Alpha press refers to objective reality, while beta press refers to perceived reality.

What is apperception?

The act of interpreting the environment and perceiving the meaning of a situation.

What is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

A psychological test where ambiguous pictures are presented for interpretation, assuming individuals project their needs in their interpretations.

What is implicit motivation?

Unconscious desires, aspirations, and needs.

Name the three big motives identified by McClelland.

Need for achievement, power, and intimacy.

What is explicit motivation?

Motivation that reflects a person's self-awareness of conscious motives.

What does the humanistic tradition emphasize?

Conscious awareness of needs, choice, and personal responsibility for growth and realizing one's full potential.

What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

A theory that categorizes human needs into a hierarchy, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

What is the concept of flow?

A state of being fully immersed in an activity, losing track of time and fatigue.

What is Carl Rogers' person-centered approach?

An approach emphasizing positive regard, conditions of worth, and conditional positive regard.

What does the cognitive approach study?

The study of intelligence and cognitive processes.