Human Anatomy, Physiology & Pathophysiology – Cells, Tissues, Integumentary & Musculoskeletal Systems

A comprehensive set of Q&A flashcards covering key concepts from cellular structure, physiology, and division to tissues, integumentary and musculoskeletal systems, designed for exam review.

What is the basic structural and functional unit of the body?

The cell

Name the four basic tissue types found in the human body.

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous tissues

Which macromolecule stores genetic information?

Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Which organelle is known as the “powerhouse of the cell”?

Mitochondria

What cellular process produces two identical daughter cells for growth and tissue repair?

Mitosis

What is the selectively permeable outer boundary of a cell called?

The cell (plasma) membrane

What type of transport moves solutes from high to low concentration without energy?

Diffusion

Define osmosis.

Movement of water from a lower solute concentration to a higher solute concentration through a semi-permeable membrane

Which cell junction forms a permeability barrier between adjacent cells?

Tight junction

What is phagocytosis?

Cell eating; engulfing large particles

Which organelle modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins made in the rough ER?

Golgi apparatus

Where does protein synthesis occur within the cell?

On ribosomes (free or bound to rough ER)

Name the membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes that recycle cellular components.

Lysosomes

Which organelle houses the cell’s DNA and controls cell activities?

Nucleus

What is the function of the nucleolus?

Ribosome production

What cytoskeletal element is responsible for muscle contraction and cell movement?

Microfilaments (actin filaments)

Which cytoskeletal component is the major element of cilia and flagella?

Microtubules

What are centrosomes and what do they contain?

Organizing centers for microtubules; they contain centrioles important in cell division

State the diploid and haploid chromosome numbers in humans.

Diploid = 46 chromosomes (somatic cells); Haploid = 23 chromosomes (gametes)

During which mitotic phase do chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell?

Metaphase

Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by DNA replication?

Interphase (S phase)

What is the term for programmed cell death?

Apoptosis (not explicitly in notes but implied cell inheritance)

Define active transport and provide an example.

Movement of solutes from low to high concentration using energy; e.g., Sodium-Potassium pump

What pressure draws water into a more concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane?

Osmotic pressure

Which special osmotic pressure is exerted by plasma proteins?

Oncotic pressure

Which layer of skin contains blood vessels and nerves—the epidermis or dermis?

Dermis

List the five layers of the epidermis from superficial to deep (thick skin).

Stratum corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale (C-L-G-S-B)

What pigment-producing cells are found in the epidermis?

Melanocytes

Name two accessory structures of the integumentary system involved in temperature regulation.

Sweat glands and arrector pili muscles

Which vitamin is synthesized by skin exposed to sunlight?

Vitamin D (cholecalciferol)

What are the three muscle types in the human body?

Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth muscles

Which muscle property refers to the ability to return to original shape after stretching?

Elasticity

What is the basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle?

Sarcomere

Which ion triggers muscle contraction by binding to troponin?

Calcium (Ca²⁺)

Describe an isometric contraction.

Muscle tension increases but length remains the same

What connective tissue attaches muscle to bone?

Tendon

Which bone cell is responsible for bone formation?

Osteoblast

What is the name of the process of bone formation from cartilage?

Endochondral ossification

How many pairs of ribs are true ribs?

Seven pairs (ribs 1–7)

Name the three fused bones that form each hip bone.

Ilium, Ischium, Pubis

Which type of cartilage forms the intervertebral discs?

Fibrocartilage

What is a freely movable joint with a capsule called?

Synovial joint

Give an example of a ball-and-socket joint.

Hip joint (or shoulder joint)

What fluid-filled sacs reduce friction around joints?

Bursae

Which vertebra is called the atlas?

C1

Define abduction.

Movement of a limb away from the midline

Which cranial nerve innervates the muscles of mastication?

Trigeminal nerve (CN V)

Name the largest organ system of the body.

The integumentary system

What is the main function of hemidesmosomes?

Anchor cells to the basement membrane

What cellular structures are involved in secretion of proteins (list pathway)?

Rough ER → Golgi body → Vesicles → Exocytosis

Which type of epithelium lines the urinary bladder allowing stretch?

Transitional epithelium

Where would you find simple squamous epithelium in the body?

Alveoli of lungs and blood vessel lining

What are exosomes and their primary role?

Small vesicles that remove debris, transport immune molecules, and facilitate cell communication

Which skin layer is primarily adipose tissue and acts as an insulator?

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)

How many bones comprise the adult human skeleton?

206 bones

What type of joint movement decreases the angle between two bones?

Flexion

Define inversion and eversion.

Inversion: turning the foot inward; Eversion: turning the foot outward

Which bones make up the pectoral (shoulder) girdle?

Clavicle and Scapula

Name the two major types of muscle fibers based on contraction speed and fatigue.

Fast-twitch (Type II) and Slow-twitch (Type I)

Which organelles are maternally inherited?

Mitochondria

What connective tissue covers an individual muscle fiber?

Endomysium

What is the functional significance of the sternal Angle of Louis?

Marks the location of the second rib and level of tracheal bifurcation