Three Axis References

What is the role of the HPG axis in male under-masculinisation according to Ahmed et al., 2000?

The HPG axis response is essential in differentiating causes of male under-masculinisation, especially in ambiguous or undiagnosed cases.

What effect does acute exercise have on testosterone and oestradiol according to Sokoloff et al., 2020?

Acute exercise in men and women increases testosterone and oestradiol in women.

How does chronic fatigue affect the HPG axis according to Sokoloff et al., 2020?

Chronic fatigue may suppress the HPG axis, with energy availability being a key modulator for function.

What is a complicating factor in studies of the HPG axis as noted by Sokoloff et al., 2020?

Many studies do not take menstrual cycle phase into account, complicating conclusions.

What is the impact of chronic activation of the HPA axis on reproductive hormones according to Rivarola et al., 2014?

Chronic activation of the HPA axis suppresses the HPG axis, reducing the secretion of reproductive hormones like testosterone and oestrogen.

What cytokines are involved in HPA activation in response to stress according to Turnbull and Rivier, 1995?

Cytokines such as IL-1 and IL-6 are involved in immune and inflammatory regulation and aid in HPA activation.

How does chronic activation of the HPA axis affect aging according to Aguilera, 2011?

Chronic activation of the HPA axis and prolonged exposure to stress hormones like CRH can negatively influence the aging process, contributing to cognitive decline, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances.

What effect does repeated stress have on the HPT axis according to Helmreich et al., 2005?

Repeated stress via HPA axis activation and elevated corticosterone disrupts the HPT axis by lowering peripheral thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

What mechanism may be involved in the disruption of the HPT axis due to stress as noted by Helmreich et al., 2005?

The disruption may involve agouti-related protein (AGRP) upregulation in the hypothalamus.

What link between anxiety and the HPT axis is highlighted by Fischer and Ehlert, 2017?

Anxiety is linked to small changes in HPT axis function, such as lower TSH levels or weaker responses to TRH.

What pollutants have been shown to affect HPT function in certain species according to Carr and Patiño, 2011?

Pollutants like heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, and agricultural chemicals can affect HPT function in Teleost Fish and pond-breeding amphibians.